Emily McClung de Tapia

RADIOCARBON DATES FROM SOIL PROFILES IN THE TEOTIHUACÁN VALLEY, MEXICO: INDICATORS OF GEOMORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Radiocarbon dates largely obtained from bulk soil samples in 24 soil profiles in the Teotihuac·n Valley, Mex- ico, are reported insofar as they represent a first step towards developing a sequence of soil formation, erosion, vegetation change, and human impact during the Holocene. Limitations of 14C dating in the area are considered, particularly the absence of charcoal in sediments and poor preservation of pollen. A broad temporal scheme is proposed to guide future research in which 4 periods are defined: ~5000-2000 BP (relative stability with short, intermittent episodes of erosion); ~2000-1500 BP (erosion-sedimentation, deforestation, and intensive agriculture); ~1500-1000 BP (relative stability, depopulation, and partial recovery of the landscape); and ~1000-500 BP (erosion-sedimentation, deforestation, and intensive agriculture). INTRODUCTION Between 1992 and 1999, 24 soil profiles were excavated in the Teotihuac·n Valley, State of Mexico (Figure 1), in order to study the formation of soils, erosion, and human impact associated with prehispanic settlement, resource extraction, and production in the region. The region, located approximately 50 km NE of Mexico City, is best known for the archaeological site of Teotihuac·n, the earliest city of its size and density in the Americas, occupied between approximately AD 1-650. Although the prehispanic urban center of Teotihuac·n represents a significant focus for our research, our initial goal was to establish a broad outline of the sequence of landscape transformation throughout the Holocene, based on the analysis of sediments and associated plant remains, including macrobotanical remains, pollen, and phytoliths (McClung de Tapia et al. 2003). In the Teotihuac·n Valley, only very limited paleoenvironmental research had been undertaken prior to our investigation, including geological surveys reported by Mooser (1968) and Barba (1995), a palynological study by Kovar (1970), and an analysis of Aztec and Colonial period landscape change in the Texcoco region, which included a portion of the southern extreme of the Teotihuac·n Valley (Cordova 1997). Only Cordovas research incorporated radiocarbon determinations of organic materials recovered from profiles. Consequently, our analysis represents the first stage of an attempt to develop a sequence of regional landscape dynamics in the area during the Holocene. Paleoenvironmental studies of lake sediments reported from other sectors of the Basin of Mexico indicate relatively dry conditions during the Late Glacial continuing into the Early Holocene (Loz- ano-Garcia and Ortega-Guerrero 1998; Caballero et al. 1999). Palynological studies of cores from lakes Texcoco and Chalco (Lozano-Garcia et al. 1993; Lozano Garcia and Ortega-Guerrero 1998) S and E of the Teotihuac·n Valley, respectively, and Lake Tecocomulco in the NE (Caballero et al. 1999), consistently reveal evidence for human impact during the Middle-Late Holocene that obscures possible indicators of episodes of climatic-induced vegetation change or other evidence for climatic variability that could have affected human settlements in prehispanic times.

VEGETATION AND PLANT USE IN POSTCLASSIC OTUMBA

The study of macrobotanical remains recovered from excavations at Otumba provides evidence for past vegetation and the plants used by inhabitants of different sectors of the archaeological site. Opportunistic weedy genera commonly associated with crops were common among the archaeological specimens. Evidence for domesticated plants includes maize (Zea mays) and frijol (Phaseolus sp.), together with numerous genera that do not appear to have been domesticated as yet, such as Amaranthus sp., Chenopodium sp., Portulaca sp., and Salvia sp. The relative abundance of uncarbonized plant specimens in association with carbonized materials is discussed. The possibility of differential plant use among inhabitants of the nucleated core with respect to the dispersed residential zone is also considered.

HUMAN SACRIFICE DURING THE EPICLASSIC PERIOD IN THE NORTHERN BASIN OF MEXICO

This article examines changes in ritual practices during the Epiclassic period in central Mexico. It presents data recovered from recent excavations of a shrine discovered in Lake Xaltocan in the northern Basin of Mexico. Pottery and AMS dates place the construction and use of the shrine in the Epiclassic period. The shrine was first built during or soon after the col - lapse of the Teotihuacan state. With the decline of Teotihuacan and the emergence of competing centers, ritual practition - ers began human sacrifice: the remains of over 30 individuals were documented, including 13 complete severed crania. This practice suggests conflict as the political landscape became decentralized. Despite how broader processes may have affected behavior, the shrine, ritual practice was fundamentally local. We present archaeobotanical evidence of offerings of food, incense, and flowers that elucidates the microlevel nature of ritual at the shrine. Este articulo examina los cambios en las practicas rituales durante el periodo Epiclasico en el centro de Mexico. Presenta datos recuperados de excavaciones recientes de un lugar sagrado descubierto en el Lago de Xaltocan, situado al norte de la Cuenca de Mexico. Las ceramicas y las fechas de radiocarbano 14 el santuario en el periodo Epiclasico. Este hallazgo con - siste en una plataforma construida y utilizada cuando el estado de Teotihuacan se encontraba dominado por la tension que conllevo al colapso. Con la caida de Teotihuacan y la aparicion de otros centros politicos, la practica del sacrificio humano se inicio; en este caso se ejemplifica con la presencia de los restos de mas de 30 individuos, incluyendo 13 craneos decapita - dos completos, hallados en el contexto ceremonial. Esta costumbre sugiere la existencia de conflicto cuando el paisaje politico se volvio mas descentralizado. Aunque los procesos regionales afectaron las actividades en el sitio, el ritual era, sobre todo, un fenomeno local. Presentamos datos arqueobotanicos que indican que los practicantes del ritual realizaron ritos asociados con el agua y la fertilidad e hicieron ofrendas de comida, incienso, y flores.

LOS ORÍGENES PREHISPÁNICOS DE UNA TRADICIÓN ALIMENTARIA EN LA CUENCA DE MÉXICO

Alimentation, or the provision of nourishment by food consumption, is a fundamental part of human subsistence, broadly defined as the group of resources required by human beings in order to guarantee satisfaction of their biological necessities. Alimentation is considered to be traditional when it incorporates and maintains cultural foodways that are transmitted from generation to generation (particular ways of preparing and consuming foods), although new components may be introduced through time adding variety. Plants used as foods by prehistoric populations may be studied by analyzing the botanical remains recovered from sediments in archaeological excavations. Two kinds of materials are predominant: macroscopic (seeds, wood and fruits) and microscopic remains (pollen, phytoliths and starch grains). In this paper we present hypotheses concerning the use of plant as foods in the prehispanic Basin of Mexico by comparing the descriptive information provided in Sixteenth Century documents with archaeological data. A group of plants recurrent in domestic contexts during the major periods of settlement was selected, including the Postclassic (Otumba, Xaltocan, Tlatelolco and Iztapalapa), Epiclassic (Michpilco and Xico), Classic (Tetitla, Yayahuala and Oztoyahualco) and Formative (Terremote-Tlatenco, Cuanalan and Temamatla). The continual presence of these plants suggests the development of a tradition through time in the region.

History of pedogenesis and geomorphic processes in the Valley of Teotihuacán, Mexico: Micromorphological evidences from a soil catena .

Este trabajo proporciona nuevas evidencias sobre la historia edafologica y geomorfologica en el Valle de Teotihuacan, Mexico. El paisaje del suelo en este lugar esta formado por un Luvisol y un “suelo negro”, cuyos analisis micromorfologicos permitieron: (a) distinguir entre procesos in situ y procesos heredados, y (b) establecer las relaciones espaciales de erosion/sedimentacion a traves de una catena de tres perfiles de suelo. La seleccion de los suelos se realizo a partir de fotointerpretacion y posterior verificacion de una toposecuencia que mostraba una distribucion desde ladera media hasta piedemonte coluvial. Las muestras de estos perfiles fueron caracterizadas de manera fisico-quimica, incluyendo la observacion micromorfologica de laminas delgadas con microscopio petrografico. Los resultados obtenidos se resumen en las observaciones geomorfologicas, la descripcion y el analisis de los perfiles de suelo de la catena Zacatlan, y los resultados micromorfologicos. El conjunto permitio interpretar y reconocer tanto los procesos edafogeneticos actuales como los heredados debidos al transporte por erosion de suelo en epocas pasadas. En el “suelo negro” los procesos clave son el desarrollo de propiedades verticas, la humificacion y la acumulacion de carbonatos secundarios; la micromorfologia tambien revelo fragmentos de arcilla iluviada y nodulos de hierro redepositados. En el Luvisol domina la iluviacion de arcilla asociada con procesos redoximorficos. En los horizontes verticos se observo la presencia de fragmentos de pomez fuertemente meteorizados coexistiendo con fragmentos de roca y minerales con debil meteorizacion. Los edaforrasgos del “suelo negro” difieren fuertemente de los del Luvisol, lo cual permitio reconocer rasgos heredados del Luvisol en los horizontes del “suelo negro”. Por lo tanto, las observaciones micromorfologicas nos permiten proponer que el “suelo negro” probablemente incorporo materiales del Luvisol, los cuales fueron anteriormente coluviados. La presunta fase de erosion puede corresponder con una aridizacion climatica.

HOLOCENE PALEOENVIRONMENT AND PREHISPANIC LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION IN THE BASIN OF MEXICO

Paleoenvironmental and geoarchaeological data generated over the past three decades for parts of the Basin of Mexico are little known among archaeologists working in the region. This paper summarizes and evaluates what is currently known about the prehistoric environment, landscape development, and human impact in the region. Archaeological evidence indicates that human activity became important in ecosystem evolution in the basin during the Middle-Late Holocene. Most traditional paleoenvironmental studies based on lake sediments, however, generalize results corresponding to this period simply as evidence for human impact . Essentially the same vegetation communities extant in the basin today appear to have been present during most of the Holocene, albeit with broader distributions and variability in secondary taxa. Recognizing potential contributions of archaeology to understanding human adaptation to climatic and ecosystemic change, past and present, should stimulate future research on paleoenvironment in the region.Abstract Paleoenvironmental and geoarchaeological data generated over the past three decades for parts of the Basin of Mexico are little known among archaeologists working in the region. This paper summarizes and evaluates what is currently known about the prehistoric environment, landscape development, and human impact in the region. Archaeological evidence indicates that human activity became important in ecosystem evolution in the basin during the Middle-Late Holocene. Most traditional paleoenvironmental studies based on lake sediments, however, generalize results corresponding to this period simply as evidence for human impact. Essentially the same vegetation communities extant in the basin today appear to have been present during most of the Holocene, albeit with broader distributions and variability in secondary taxa. Recognizing potential contributions of archaeology to understanding human adaptation to climatic and ecosystemic change, past and present, should stimulate future research on paleoenvironment in the region.

JAIME LITVAK KING (1933–2006)

Jaime Litvak died on October 2, 2006, in his sleep at his home in Mexico City. He had been afflicted by heart trouble, cancer, and a stroke over the past 16 years. Born in Mexico City on December 10, 1933, he studied economics as an undergraduate at Mexico City College and, later, anthropology at the Escuela Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia, where he received his Master of Arts degree with the thesis Cihuatlán y Tepecoacuilco, dos provincias tributarias de México en el siglo XVI in 1963. An evaluation of Jaime’s curriculum vitae reveals more than four decades of dedication to archaeology in Latin America, especially in Mexico. His early research, during the 1960s, reflects a strong emphasis on a historical approach to archaeology in which ethnohistorical and linguistic sources contributed to the formulation of research problems. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, his interests took a turn toward quantitative methods and computer applications to the analysis of archaeological data. He was an early proponent of spatial analysis in Mesoamerican archaeology. His doctoral thesis, El Valle de Xochicalco: Un modelo estadı́stico para la arqueologı́a regional (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1970), is the first investigation of its kind presented to a Mexican institution. His principal fieldwork was carried out in central Mexico and Guerrero, especially at Xochicalco, Morelos, although in recent years he was involved in the archaeology of British mining communities in the state of Hidalgo. Jaime coordinated the laboratories of the Department of Prehistory, Instituto Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia (INAH) , in 1965–1967. He promoted the establishment of a section dedicated to the application of computer technology in archaeology at the Museo Nacional de Antropologı́a of Mexico and served as its first coordinator (1967–1968). He was the head of the Archaeology Department at the National School of Anthropology in 1968–1970. As director of the Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas (IIA), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), from 1973 to 1985, he established numerous innovations, including the first computerized library catalogue at UNAM, with keyword bibliographic searches; a mobile field laboratory; and the use of personal computers at a humanities institute. He actively promoted the development of a series of research laboratories in the IIA to analyze archaeological materials and contexts (paleoethnobotany, chemistry and materials conservation, prospection, radiocarbon dating, human osteology), since expanded to include human population genetics, molecular anthropology, and archaeozoology, which together are at the forefront of Latin American archaeological research. In addition, he was head of the Anthropology Department of the Universidad de las Américas in Cholula, Puebla, from 1986 to 1989. He taught, among others, at Cambridge University as Geoffrey Bushnell’s assistant (1967), the Escuela Nacional de Antropologı́a e Historia (1963–1998); the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (1969–2006); the Universidad de las Americas–Puebla (1971–1991; department chair, 1986–1989); the University of Minnesota (1981); the University of New Mexico (1986); Tulane University (Mellon Professor of Humanities, 1988); and the University of Texas, El Paso (1994). Jaime possessed a level of energy and charisma that inspired students, and many generations of undergraduate and graduate students were motivated by his unceasing stream of ideas, potential projects, and activities in progress. He continually found opportunities to incorporate students in research, public-outreach activities, and academic administrative services (as library assistants, newspaper and bulletin staffs, and so on). Perhaps his most outstanding quality was his intense concern for people and their needs, as demonstrated in his participation in volunteer activities such as the establishment of a computerized database to coordinate university rescue brigades during the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. He was a gifted communicator and, in recent years, had dedicated much of his time to the dissemination of archaeology at all

The potential of paleoethnobotanical evidence for the study of Teotihuacan foodways

Macro- and microscopic plant remains recovered from excavations at Teotihuacan over several decades contribute to an understanding of the subsistence resources available to the city’s inhabitants. However, associated contextual evidence may be inconclusive regarding the specific uses of the plants in question and, particularly, whether their presence or relative abundance indicates processing and consumption or the consequence of depositional processes. While the analysis of archeological plant remains is necessarily an interdisciplinary endeavor, involving aspects of botany, ecology, ethnography and history among other disciplines, contextual archeological evidence provides the matrix for interpretation. In this paper, we explore direct archeological evidence for plant use, considering the significance of appropriate contextual evidence (e.g., activity areas, associated ceramics, lithics, etc.) and the potential complementary role of analytical techniques such as residue analyses, and carbon isotope signatures in faunal and human osteological remains as well as stratigraphic sediments.