Emily R. Clear

Evaluation of Green Dot: An Active Bystander Intervention to Reduce Sexual Violence on College Campuses

Using a cross-sectional survey of a random sample of 7,945 college undergraduates, we report on the association between having received Green Dot active bystander behavior training and the frequency of actual and observed self-reported active bystander behaviors as well as violence acceptance norms. Of 2,504 students aged 18 to 26 who completed the survey, 46% had heard a Green Dot speech on campus, and 14% had received active bystander training during the past 2 years. Trained students had significantly lower rape myth acceptance scores than did students with no training. Trained students also reported engaging in significantly more bystander behaviors and observing more self-reported active bystander behaviors when compared with nontrained students. When comparing self-reported active bystander behavior scores of students trained with students hearing a Green Dot speech alone, the training was associated with significantly higher active bystander behavior scores. Those receiving bystander training appeared to report more active bystander behaviors than those simply hearing a Green Dot speech, and both intervention groups reported more observed and active bystander behaviors than nonexposed students.

Evaluation of the Green Dot Bystander Intervention to Reduce Interpersonal Violence Among College Students Across Three Campuses

Evidence suggests that interventions to engage bystanders in violence prevention increase bystander intentions and efficacy to intervene, yet the impact of such programs on violence remains unknown. This study compared rates of violence by type among undergraduate students attending a college campus with the Green Dot bystander intervention (n = 2,768) with students at two colleges without bystander programs (n = 4,258). Violent victimization rates were significantly (p < .01) lower among students attending the campus with Green Dot relative to the two comparison campuses. Violence perpetration rates were lower among males attending the intervention campus. Implications of these results for research and practice are discussed.

Multi-college bystander intervention evaluation for violence prevention

INTRODUCTION The 2013 Campus Sexual Violence Elimination Act requires U.S. colleges to provide bystander-based training to reduce sexual violence, but little is known about the efficacy of such programs for preventing violent behavior. This study provides the first multiyear evaluation of a bystander interventions campus-level impact on reducing interpersonal violence victimization and perpetration behavior on college campuses. METHODS First-year students attending three similarly sized public university campuses were randomly selected and invited to complete online surveys in the spring terms of 2010-2013. On one campus, the Green Dot bystander intervention was implemented in 2008 (Intervention, n=2,979) and two comparison campuses had no bystander programming at baseline (Comparison, n=4,132). Data analyses conducted in 2014-2015 compared violence rates by condition over the four survey periods. Multivariable logistic regression was used to estimate violence risk on Intervention relative to Comparison campuses, adjusting for demographic factors and time (2010-2013). RESULTS Interpersonal violence victimization rates (measured in the past academic year) were 17% lower among students attending the Intervention (46.4%) relative to Comparison (55.7%) campuses (adjusted rate ratio=0.83; 95% CI=0.79, 0.88); a similar pattern held for interpersonal violence perpetration (25.5% in Intervention; 32.2% in Comparison; adjusted rate ratio=0.79; 95% CI=0.71, 0.86). Violence rates were lower on Intervention versus Comparison campuses for unwanted sexual victimization, sexual harassment, stalking, and psychological dating violence victimization and perpetration (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS Green Dot may be an efficacious intervention to reduce violence at the community level and meet Campus Sexual Violence Elimination Act bystander training requirements.

Challenge and Opportunity in Evaluating a Diffusion-Based Active Bystanding Prevention Program: Green Dot in High Schools

Increasing attention has recently been paid to the development of prevention programs designed to actively engage bystanders in prevention efforts to reduce the risk of sexual and dating violence; yet, few evaluations have been conducted. Our proposed plan to rigorously evaluate a randomized intervention trial of the Green Dot bystander program as it is implemented in high schools across Kentucky is presented. We highlight the value of measuring violence victimization and perpetration outcomes, capturing actual and observed student bystander behaviors, and testing the diffusion of Green Dot training through students’ social networks.

Sexual Harassment Victimization and Perpetration Among High School Students

This large, population-based study is one of the few to examine prevalence rates of sexual harassment occurring during the past 12 months by victimization and perpetration among adolescents. In this large, cross-sectional survey of students attending 26 high schools, sexual harassment was defined using three questions from the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire. Among 18,090 students completing the survey, 30% disclosed sexual harassment victimization (37% of females, 21% of males) and 8.5% reported perpetration (5% of females, 12% of males). Sexual harassment perpetration was highly correlated with male sex, minority race/ethnicity, same-sex attraction, bullying, alcohol binge drinking, and intraparental partner violence.

RCT testing bystander effectiveness to reduce violence

Introduction Bystander-based programs have shown promise to reduce interpersonal violence at colleges, yet limited rigorous evaluations have addressed bystander intervention effectiveness in high schools. This study evaluated the Green Dot bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence and related forms of interpersonal violence in 26 high schools over 5 years. Design A cluster RCT was conducted. Setting/participants Kentucky high schools were randomized to intervention or control (wait list) conditions. Intervention Green Dot–trained educators conducted schoolwide presentations and recruited student popular opinion leaders to receive bystander training in intervention schools beginning in Year 1. Main outcome measures The primary outcome was sexual violence perpetration, and related forms of interpersonal violence victimization and perpetration were also measured using anonymous student surveys collected at baseline and annually from 2010 to 2014. Because the school was the unit of analysis, violence measures were aggregated by school and year and school-level counts were provided. Results A total of 89,707 students completed surveys. The primary, as randomized, analyses conducted in 2014–2016 included linear mixed models and generalized estimating equations to examine the condition–time interaction on violence outcomes. Slopes of school-level totals of sexual violence perpetration (condition–time, p<0.001) and victimization (condition time, p<0.001) were different over time. During Years 3–4, when Green Dot was fully implemented, the mean number of sexual violent events prevented by the intervention was 120 in Intervention Year 3 and 88 in Year 4. For Year 3, prevalence rate ratios for sexual violence perpetration in the intervention relative to control schools were 0.83 (95% CI=0.70, 0.99) in Year 3 and 0.79 (95% CI=0.67, 0.94) in Year 4. Similar patterns were observed for sexual violence victimization, sexual harassment, stalking, and dating violence perpetration and victimization. Conclusions Implementation of Green Dot in Kentucky high schools significantly decreased not only sexual violence perpetration but also other forms of interpersonal violence perpetration and victimization.

Dating Violence Victimization and Perpetration Rates Among High School Students

This school-based sample provides the largest estimate of physical and psychological dating violence (DV) victimization and the only report of DV perpetration among high school students. Among 14,190 students in relationships, 33.4% disclosed DV by a partner (victimization) and 20.2% used these same behaviors against a partner (perpetration) in the past 12 months. Physical DV victimization (13%) was less frequently disclosed than psychological DV (23%). Rates of DV victimization and perpetration were highest among females, those receiving free or reduced-price meals, those not exclusively attracted to the opposite sex, students reporting parental or guardian partner violence, binge drinking, and bullying.

Victimization and Perpetration of Unwanted Sexual Activities Among High School Students: Frequency and Correlates

The objective of this study was to report the frequency of perpetration and victimization of unwanted sexual activities (threatened to end relationship or other pressures to engage in sexual activities, threatened or actual physical force, and facilitated by drugs or alcohol) in a large, statewide sample of high school males and females. Among 18,030 students, 18.5% reported victimization and 8.0% perpetration in the past year. Although females were more likely to report unwanted sexual activities due to feeling pressured, there were no significant sex differences among those reporting physical force or unwanted sexual activities due to alcohol or drug use.

Statewide Estimates of Stalking Among High School Students in Kentucky Demographic Profile and Sex Differences

This large, statewide sample from 26 high schools provided the first population-based estimates of stalking victimization and perpetration among adolescent females and males. Our stalking definition required that pursuing tactics occurred at least 3 times in the past 12 months and included being followed, spied on, or monitored; someone showed up or waited for you when you did not want them to; and receiving unwanted messages. Among 18,013 students, 16.5% disclosed being stalked and 5.3% stalking; 2.8% disclosed both stalking victimization and perpetration. A majority of students reported being most afraid of a former boyfriend or girlfriend as the stalker.

Sexual Coercion and Sexual Violence at First Intercourse Associated with Sexually Transmitted Infections

Background Violence against women has been associated with subsequent risky sexual behaviors and sexually transmitted infections (STIs). We explored whether sexual coercion or violence at first intercourse was associated with self-reported STIs. Methods Using nationally representative data from the 2006 to 2010 National Survey of Family Growth, we analyzed female respondents aged 18 to 44 (n = 9466) who answered questions on coercion at first intercourse (wantedness, voluntariness, and types of force used) and STIs using logistic regression analyses. We explored degrees of coercion, which we label as neither, sexual coercion (unwanted or nonphysical force), or sexual violence (involuntary or physical force). Results Eighteen percent of US women reported sexual coercion, and 8.4% experienced sexual violence at first intercourse. Compared with women who experienced neither, the odds of reporting an STI was significantly greater for women who experienced sexual coercion (odds ratio, 1.27; 95% confidence interval, 1.01–1.60), after controlling for all variables. The association between sexual violence at first intercourse and STIs (odds ratio, 1.20; 95% confidence interval, 0.91–1.57) seemed to be attenuated by subsequent sexual violence. Conclusions Understanding that women who reported a variety of coercive sexual experiences are more likely to have contracted an STI may indicate a need to focus on the broader continuum of sexual violence to fully understand the impact of even subtle forms of violence on women’s health. In addition, focusing on subsequent sexual behaviors and other negative consequences remains important to improve the sexual health of women who have experienced coercive sexual intercourse.