Emma Cunliffe

The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations

This article comes as the conflict in Syria has entered its fifth year, bringing with it loss of life and the displacement of the Syrian people as well as extensive damage to, and destruction of, the country’s cultural heritage. This article will first provide an overview and explanation of the national and international legal framework for protecting cultural property in conflict as it applies to the Syrian State and the non-State actors involved, using examples from the whole conflict, including the recent actions of Da’esh. Second, we demonstrate that the destruction of all types of cultural property, regardless of its importance, can be considered a prosecutable violation of these laws, and we examine the possibilities for prosecution. Following from this discussion, we question whether the existing framework can be considered effective and consider the role the international heritage community can play.

Remote Assessments of Site Damage: A New Ontology

The archaeology of the Middle East is of immense significance to the history of mankind. However, due to modern development and the expansion of irrigation and agriculture, this priceless heritage is being damaged and lost at an unprecedented rate. It is neither practical, nor in many cases, possible, to visit sites to determine the extent of damage. Satellite imagery offers an unparalleled opportunity to assess and quantify the damage sites are experiencing. However, remote assessments present a new set of challenges in how to record aspects of damage which cannot be confirmed in the field, such as site visibility, and site depth. This paper presents a new ontology of damage, developed specifically for use in assessing sites remotely. In addition, it offers ways to incorporate additional factors such as site visibility on imagery. Whilst it was developed during an assessment of Syrian sites, it has far wider applicability.

Cultural Heritage that Heals: Factoring in Cultural Heritage Discourses in the Syrian Peacebuilding Process

Abstract Transitional justice is considered a building block of peacebuilding in post-conflict scenarios. Processes may include criminal justice mechanisms, reparation programmes, truth-seeking bodies and institutional reforms which seek to provide redress for victims of human rights atrocities. However, it is now widely acknowledged that the destruction of cultural heritage plays a significant role in and of itself in modern conflicts, affecting entire societies, as it is linked to the destruction of group identity, and can even prolong violence in the post-conflict period. The loss of cultural heritage has been devastating in the ongoing civil war in Syria, most notably in World Heritage sites. Despite this, discussions of potential peacebuilding methods and ideas for transitional justice programmes in Syria have failed to incorporate it. This paper argues that cultural heritage should be included in such work in its own right, and suggests ways this could be accomplished to encourage greater awareness of Syria’s cultural diversity, and the understanding and healing that can bring.

How to Build a Dam and Save Cultural Heritage

The impact of each dam on cultural heritage is enormous, affecting hundreds or even thousands of sites. Dams are required, however, to offset water shortages and provide electricity for a rising global population. This short paper describes the initial outcomes of a new project, the aim of which is the production of a practical set of guidelines for cultural heritage management before and after dam construction, aimed at developers, foreign contractors, and policy-makers.

ISIS and heritage destruction: a sentiment analysis

While periods of war have always seen cultural heritage placed at risk, the recent rise of ISIS has involved the deliberate targeting of heritage sites as part of a broader strategy towards local communities in Syria and Iraq. Using data collated from social media (Twitter), the authors conducted sentiment analysis of reactions to instances of heritage destruction and repurposing in the Middle East between 2015 and 2016. It is hoped that the insights gained can help the international community better tackle terrorism, protecting heritage and supporting affected communities.