Emma Halliwell

A qualitative investigation of women's and men's body image concerns and their attitudes toward aging

In-depth interviews were conducted with 42 women and men (aged 22–62 years) to explore their relationships with their bodies. The particular focus was age-related changes in body image and attitudes toward the body aging, an area that has received little research attention to date. Thematic analysis revealed distinctive gender differences. Men commonly conceptualized their bodies as a holistic entity, whereas women commonly had compartmentalized conceptualizations. They also construed the importance of their bodies differently: men tended to focus on functionality, and women tended to focus on display. These findings may help to explain gendered consequences of body dissatisfaction. Accounts about the aging of the body support a “double standard of aging.” Women viewed aging most negatively in terms of its impact on appearance, whereas men reported a neutral or even positive impact on appearance.

Examination of a sociocultural model of disordered eating among male and female adolescents

OBJECTIVES The study tests a version of Stices (1994) sociocultural model of disordered eating that was modified to incorporate social comparisons. Additionally, it examines how self-reported body-mass index and perceived weight status influence associations within the model. METHOD Questionnaires were administered in a state secondary school; the sample consisted of 250 female and 257 male adolescents aged 11-16 years. RESULTS The results supported the sociocultural model among both male and female adolescents. Perceived pressure to lose weight was directly associated with eating behaviour, as well as indirectly associated through social comparisons, internalization and body dissatisfaction. However, social comparisons were most strongly related to body dissatisfaction among adolescents who perceived themselves as overweight. CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that models of eating disordered behaviour, developed for adolescent girls, are also appropriate for understanding this behaviour among male adolescents. The results suggest that social comparisons represent a useful addition to Stices (1994) original model and a potentially fruitful target for interventions.

Social comparisons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women's body image concerns and mood

The present study experimentally investigated the effect of Facebook usage on womens mood and body image, whether these effects differ from an online fashion magazine, and whether appearance comparison tendency moderates any of these effects. Female participants (N=112) were randomly assigned to spend 10min browsing their Facebook account, a magazine website, or an appearance-neutral control website before completing state measures of mood, body dissatisfaction, and appearance discrepancies (weight-related, and face, hair, and skin-related). Participants also completed a trait measure of appearance comparison tendency. Participants who spent time on Facebook reported being in a more negative mood than those who spent time on the control website. Furthermore, women high in appearance comparison tendency reported more facial, hair, and skin-related discrepancies after Facebook exposure than exposure to the control website. Given its popularity, more research is needed to better understand the impact that Facebook has on appearance concerns.

What works in secondary schools? A systematic review of classroom-based body image programs

Governments, schools, and curriculum authorities are increasingly recognizing that body image during adolescence is a public health issue that warrants attention in the school setting. After 30 years of eating disorder prevention research, and given the current interest in this area, it seems timely to review the research on interventions to improve body image in schools. We reviewed universal-selective, classroom-based programs that have been conducted since the year 2000, among adolescents, and found 16 eligible intervention programs. Seven of these programs were effective in improving body image on at least one measure, from pre to post test, though effect sizes were small (d=0.22-0.48). These effective programs were conducted among younger adolescents 12.33-13.62 years, and included activities focusing on media literacy, self esteem, and the influence of peers. Implications for school personnel and curriculum authorities are discussed, and we provide recommendations for a strategic approach to future research in this area.

The impact of thin idealized media images on body satisfaction: does body appreciation protect women from negative effects?

This article examines whether positive body image can protect women from negative media exposure effects. University women (N=112) were randomly allocated to view advertisements featuring ultra-thin models or control images. Women who reported high levels of body appreciation did not report negative media exposure effects. Furthermore, the protective role of body appreciation was also evident among women known to be vulnerable to media exposure. Women high on thin-ideal internalization and low on body appreciation reported appearance-discrepancies that were more salient and larger when they viewed models compared to the control group. However, women high on thin-ideal internalization and also high on body appreciation rated appearance-discrepancies as less important and no difference in size than the control group. The results support the notion that positive body image protects women from negative environmental appearance messages and suggests that promoting positive body image may be an effective intervention strategy.

Investigating the role of attachment in social comparison theories of eating disorders within a non-clinical female population.

OBJECTIVE The present study aimed to integrate attachment theory and sociocultural theory as predictors of disordered eating, thereby combining two previously distinct literatures in order to provide a more comprehensive model of eating disorder development. It was specifically proposed that womens attachment style may influence their tendency to socially compare themselves to idealized others. METHOD Participants (N = 213) were non-clinical female undergraduates. Sociocultural attitudes to appearance, social comparison, attachment and eating disorder symptomatology were assessed using self-report questionnaires. RESULTS Consistent with the hypothesis, social comparison was found to mediate the relationship between attachment anxiety and disordered eating. In addition, attachment avoidance, was not significantly associated with either internalisation of cultural ideals or social comparison but was significantly related to eating psychopathology. CONCLUSION The findings suggest that attachment anxiety and avoidance influence disordered eating via different pathways, with attachment anxiety specifically being implicated in sociocultural models of disordered eating.

Associations Between Appearance-Related Self-Discrepancies and Young Women's and Men's Affect, Body Satisfaction, and Emotional Eating: A Comparison of Fixed-Item and Participant-Generated Self-Discrepancies

This study examines the associations between appearancerelated, actual-ideal self-discrepancies—from both own and romantic partners standpoints—and negative affect, body satisfaction, and eating behavior. It extends previous research through studying both genders and the romantic partner standpoint, but its main novel contribution is a systematic comparison between idiographic, participant-generated, and nomothetic, fixed-item measures of appearance-related selfdiscrepancies. The findings show that these measures cannot be, and should not be, treated as equivalent. The idiographic measures were superior in predicting outcome variables when considering the own standpoint. Nomothetic measures did demonstrate some gender-specific associations, but only from the romantic partner standpoint, and only for women. These findings can be explained with respect to the assessment of accessible, versus available, self-discrepancies. Implications for selfdiscrepancy and body image theory and research are discussed.

Bisexual women’s understandings of social marginalisation: ‘The heterosexuals don’t understand us but nor do the lesbians’:

Drawing on interviews with 20 self-identified bisexual women, this paper contributes to the limited psychological literature on bisexual women by exploring their experiences of social marginalisation. These (mainly white and middle class) British bisexual women reported that they did not feel at home in either lesbian or lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender communities, nor in the wider (heteronormative) society. They identified a number of understandings – bisexuality as a temporary phase on the path to a fully realised lesbian or heterosexual identity and bisexuals as immature, confused, greedy, untrustworthy, highly sexual and incapable of monogamy – which they reported as arising from lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender communities and the wider society. The women refuted these accounts which they stated did not reflect their experiences of bisexual identity and which positioned bisexuality as invisible and invalid.

Body dissatisfaction: can a short media literacy message reduce negative media exposure effects amongst adolescent girls?

OBJECTIVES This experimental study examined whether a brief video intervention identifying the artificial nature of media images could protect adolescent girls from negative media exposure effects and body dissatisfaction. DESIGN A 2 (intervention condition)×2 (exposure condition) between-groups design was used. METHODS Participants were 127 British girls aged between 10 and 13 recruited from two secondary schools. Girls were assigned to one of four experimental conditions. An intervention video was shown to half of the girls immediately before they viewed ultra-thin models or control images. The video was developed by Doves Self-Esteem Fund and has the benefits of being professionally produced and freely available through the Internet. RESULTS In the absence of the intervention video, viewing thin idealized models was associated with lower state body satisfaction and lower state body esteem than exposure to control images. However, viewing the video intervention immediately before exposure prevented this negative exposure effect. CONCLUSION The results suggest that, in the short term, this widely available video prevents girls from making damaging social comparisons with media models. Although this study only examined short-term effects, the findings add to the growing evidence that media literacy interventions may be useful tools in protecting young girls from body dissatisfaction.

Adolescents’ and Parents’ Experiences of Managing the Psychosocial Impact of Appearance Change During Cancer Treatment

Using combined qualitative data from multiple case study interviews and an online survey, this study explored the impact of appearance change on 22 adolescents receiving cancer treatment aged 13 to 18 years and six of their parents. Data were analyzed using template analysis. Appearance changes were a major concern. Adolescents typically struggled to adapt to new experiences and concerns related to this highly sensitive issue. Many felt anxious and self-conscious and were reluctant to reveal appearance changes in public. These feelings were compounded by the negative reactions of others (e.g., staring, teasing, and inappropriate questioning), which sometimes lead to avoidance of social activity and threats of noncompliance. Parents of these children felt ill-prepared to manage appearance-related anxieties. Adolescents wanted support to develop the practical and social skills necessary to maintain a “normal” appearance and manage the negative responses of others. However, some adolescents showed resilience and, with support from friends and family, developed strategies to manage their altered appearance and its social consequences. These strategies are explored, which can inform interventions to support adolescents and parents.