Emma Lodwig

Amino-acid cycling drives nitrogen fixation in the legume-Rhizobium symbiosis

The biological reduction of atmospheric N2 to ammonium (nitrogen fixation) provides about 65% of the biospheres available nitrogen. Most of this ammonium is contributed by legume–rhizobia symbioses, which are initiated by the infection of legume hosts by bacteria (rhizobia), resulting in formation of root nodules. Within the nodules, rhizobia are found as bacteroids, which perform the nitrogen fixation: to do this, they obtain sources of carbon and energy from the plant, in the form of dicarboxylic acids. It has been thought that, in return, bacteroids simply provide the plant with ammonium. But here we show that a more complex amino-acid cycle is essential for symbiotic nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium in pea nodules. The plant provides amino acids to the bacteroids, enabling them to shut down their ammonium assimilation. In return, bacteroids act like plant organelles to cycle amino acids back to the plant for asparagine synthesis. The mutual dependence of this exchange prevents the symbiosis being dominated by the plant, and provides a selective pressure for the evolution of mutualism.

Metabolism of Rhizobium Bacteroids

Nitrogen fixation within legume nodules results from a complex metabolic exchange between bacteria of the family Rhizobiaciae and the plant host. Carbon is supplied to the differentiated bacterial cells, termed bacteroids, in the form of dicarboxylic acids to fuel nitrogen fixation. In exchange, fixed nitrogen is transferred to the plant. Both the bacteroid and the plant-derived peribacteroid membrane tightly regulate the exchange of metabolites. In the bacteroid oxidation of dicarboxylic acids via the TCA cycle occurs in an oxygenlimited environment. This restricts the TCA cycle at key points, such as the 2-oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex, and requires that inputs of carbon and reductant are balanced with outputs from the TCA cycle. This may be achieved by metabolism through accessory pathways that can remove intermediates, reductant, or ATP from the cycle. These include synthesis of the carbon polymers PHB and glycogen and bypass pathways such as the recently identified 2-oxoglutarate decarboxylase reaction in soybean bacteroids. Recent labeling data have shown that bacteroids synthesize and secrete amino acids, which has led to controversy over the role of amino acids in nodule metabolism. Here we review bacteroid carbon metabolism in detail, evaluate the labeling studies that relate to amino acid metabolism by bacteroids, and place the work in context with the genome sequences of Mesorhizobium loti and Sinorhizobium meliloti. We also consider a wider range of metabolic pathways that are probably of great importance to rhizobia in the rhizosphere, during nodule initiation, infection thread development, and bacteroid development. Referee: Dr. Robert Ludwig, Department of Molecular, Celluar, and Developmental Biology, Sinheimer Laboratories, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064

Role of Symbiotic Auxotrophy in the Rhizobium-Legume Symbioses

Background Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae mutants unable to transport branched-chain amino acids via the two main amino acid ABC transport complexes AapJQMP and BraDEFGC produce a nitrogen starvation phenotype when inoculated on pea (Pisum sativum) plants [1], [2]. Bacteroids in indeterminate pea nodules have reduced abundance and a lower chromosome number. They reduce transcription of pathways for branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis and become dependent on their provision by the host. This has been called “symbiotic auxotrophy”. Methodology/Principal Findings A region important in solute specificity was identified in AapQ and changing P144D in this region reduced branched-chain amino acid transport to a very low rate. Strains carrying P144D were still fully effective for N2 fixation on peas demonstrating that a low rate of branched amino acid transport in R. leguminosarum bv. viciae supports wild-type rates of nitrogen fixation. The importance of branched-chain amino acid transport was then examined in other legume-Rhizobium symbioses. An aap bra mutant of R. leguminosarum bv. phaseoli also showed nitrogen starvation symptoms when inoculated on French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), a plant producing determinate nodules. The phenotype is different from that observed on pea and is accompanied by reduced nodule numbers and nitrogen fixation per nodule. However, an aap bra double mutant of Sinorhizobium meliloti 2011 showed no phenotype on alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Conclusions/Significance Symbiotic auxotrophy occurs in both determinate pea and indeterminate bean nodules demonstrating its importance for bacteroid formation and nodule function in legumes with different developmental programmes. However, only small quantities of branched chain amino acids are needed and symbiotic auxotrophy did not occur in the Sinorhizobium meliloti-alfalfa symbiosis under the conditions measured. The contrasting symbiotic phenotypes of aap bra mutants inoculated on different legumes probably reflects altered timing of amino acid availability, development of symbiotic auxotrophy and nodule developmental programmes.

Regulation of l-Alanine Dehydrogenase in Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae and Its Role in Pea Nodules

Alanine dehydrogenase (AldA) is the principal enzyme with which pea bacteroids synthesize alanine de novo. In free-living culture, AldA activity is induced by carboxylic acids (succinate, malate, and pyruvate), although the best inducer is alanine. Measurement of the intracellular concentration of alanine showed that AldA contributes to net alanine synthesis in laboratory cultures. Divergently transcribed from aldA is an AsnC type regulator, aldR. Mutation of aldR prevents induction of AldA activity. Plasmid-borne gusA fusions showed that aldR is required for transcription of both aldA and aldR; hence, AldR is autoregulatory. However, plasmid fusions containing the aldA-aldR intergenic region could apparently titrate out AldR, sometimes resulting in a complete loss of AldA enzyme activity. Therefore, integrated aldR::gusA and aldA::gusA fusions, as well as Northern blotting, were used to confirm the induction of aldA activity. Both aldA and aldR were expressed in the II/III interzone and zone III of pea nodules. Overexpression of aldA in bacteroids did not alter the ability of pea plants to fix nitrogen, as measured by acetylene reduction, but caused a large reduction in the size and dry weight of plants. This suggests that overexpression of aldA impairs the ability of bacteroids to donate fixed nitrogen that the plant can productively assimilate. We propose that the role of AldA may be to balance the alanine level for optimal functioning of bacteroid metabolism rather than to synthesize alanine as the sole product of N(2) reduction.

Poly-β-Hydroxybutyrate and Glycogen Metabolism in Rhizobium leguminosarum

The role of the carbon storage compounds poly-β-hydroxybutyrate and glycogen in bacteroids is not fully understood. Both compounds are synthesised in bacteroids however the overall pool sizes vary considerably. Furthermore, mutation of the biosynthetic pathways has been shown to effect the efficiency of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in beans (Cevallos, et al., 1996; Marroqui et al., 2001). Therefore the pathways appear to be involved in the regulation of bacteroid metabolism. Here we have constructed single mutants in phaC (PHB synthase) and glgA (glycogen synthase), and a double mutant, to assess their impact on the R. leguminosarum bv. viciae symbiosis. Summary