Enid Gruber

Sex on American Television: An Analysis Across Program Genres and Network Types

As part of a larger study on television exposure, 7,276 shows from the 2001 -2002 television season were coded for sexual content. Compared to previous research, this study sampled more networks targeted to adolescents and examined differences across additional program genres. A unique feature is the assessment of sexual content across network types. Three genres were distinguished by high percentages of shows with sexual behavior and talk and greater explicitness. This pattern characterized premium cable movie channels compared to broadcast and other cable networks. Few genres consistently offer programming that is free of sexual content during peak times for teen viewing.

Televised Sexual Content and Parental Mediation: Influences on Adolescent Sexuality

Little research has been conducted to examine the influence of exposure to televised sexual content on adolescent sexuality or how parental intervention may reduce negative effects of viewing such content. This study uses self-report data from 1,012 adolescents to investigate the relations among exposure to sexually suggestive programming, parental mediation strategies, and three types of adolescent sexuality outcomes: participation in oral sex and sexual intercourse, future intentions to engage in these behaviors, and sex expectancies. As predicted, exposure to sexual content was associated with an increased likelihood of engaging in sexual behaviors, increased intentions to do so in the future, and more positive sex expectancies. Often, parental mediation strategies were a significant factor in moderating these potential media influences.

Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Content on Television: A Quantitative Analysis Across Two Seasons

Abstract Two annual content analyses of programming from the 2001–2002 and 2002–2003 television seasons (n = 1,276 and 1,439 programs, respectively) were conducted to assess the presence of behaviors and verbal messages related to the sexuality of gays, lesbians, and bisexuals. Sexual content associated with nonheterosexuals was found in about 15% of programs overall; however, rates of occurrence within episodes were low. Of 14 genres, only movies and variety/comedy shows had substantial percentages of programs that contained nonheterosexual content. Programs on commercial broadcast networks were less likely to have nonheterosexual content than those on cable networks, especially those on premium cable movie networks. Implications of the continued lack of attention to sexual minorities are discussed for both heterosexual and nonheterosexual viewers.

Sexually Related Content on Television and Adolescents of Color: Media Theory, Physiological Development, and Psychological Impact*

This review examines differential impact of sexual content in the television media on adolescents of color. Drawing from available evidence in media use theory and content analyses, physiological development, and psychological impact, we argue that adolescents of color may be more vulnerable to sexual media messages and the presumed negative consequences for their sexual beliefs, attitudes, and engagement in sexual behaviors. The developmental tasks of the adolescent period may place adolescents of color at increased risk due to earlier pubertal development, greater desire for acquiring sexual and health information, and the need to identify role models to support identity development. Despite rapid technological changes and new entertainment media products available in the marketplace-despite the pervasiveness of computers, handheld devices, the Internet, CD and DVD players, MP3 devices, and the like-American adolescents still spend more time in front of televisions than in using any other form of entertainment media (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation/Children Now, 1999). Between the ages of 8 and 18, American children are exposed on average to almost 8 hours of media each day, more than 40% through television. Among parents, educators, physicians, and public health personnel, there is a concomitant concern with the nature of the content available on television, especially sexually related content. Researchers have documented the increased prevalence of sexual communication and more explicit visual portrayals of sexual behavior in televised media (Kunkel et al., 1999). This more sexualized television fare has gained attention at a time when rates of adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections remain unacceptably high (Center for Disease Control [CDC], 1995, 1998; Fleming, 1996; Ozer, Brindis, Millstein, Knopf, & Irwin, 1998). Consequently, it seems natural to question whether the values and behaviors presented in public entertainment media are having an unhealthy impact on the children and adolescents who consume them in such large quantities. The evidence also suggests that African American and Hispanic youth have higher rates of daily media exposure than Whites do, as well as higher percentages of youth who consume in excess of seven hours of media each day (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation/ Children Now, 1999). On average, these youth spend over an hour a day more than White adolescents watching television. Although sexual content in the television media has the potential to affect any age group, adolescents may be a particularly vulnerable population because adolescence is a critical developmental period when gender roles, sexual attitudes, and sexual behaviors are being shaped (Committee on Communications, 1995). If adolescents of color are more likely to be exposed to sexually related television content due to higher rates of media use, then it seems reasonable to question whether they would be more vulnerable to the potentially negative consequences of that exposure. This review will attempt to examine the question of differential impact of sexual content in the television media on adolescents of color. Drawing from available evidence in media use theory and content analyses, physiological development, and psychological impact, we will attempt to argue that adolescents of color may be more vulnerable to sexual media messages and the presumed negative consequences for their sexual beliefs, attitudes, and engagement in sexual behaviors. Prevalence of Sexual Content in Television Analyses of the content of broadcast television programming indicate that, on average, adolescent viewers see more than 140 incidents of sexual behavior on prime-time network television each week (Louis Harris & Associates, 1988), with portrayals of 3 to 4 times as many sexual activities occurring between unmarried partners as between spouses (Greenberg et al., 1993). In addition, as much as 80% of all movies shown on network or cable television stations have sexual content (Kunkel et al. …