Enrique Hong

Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats: A Potential Model to Identify Drugs for Treatment of Learning Disorders

Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) of 3 to 12 months of age learned and retrieved less information than normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY), although no difference was found with animals from 18 and 24 months of age. The combined influence of hypertension and aging had an additive detrimental effect on cognitive functions. Notwithstanding these deficiencies in learning and memory, SHR have seldom been used as a model in the screening of drugs with therapeutic potential for treatment of disorders of cognitive processes. Moreover, the calcium channel blocker nimodipine has beneficial effects on learning in both aged and hypertensive animals and humans. However, no attempt has been made to investigate whether nimodipine can reverse the additive deleterious effects of aging and hypertension in the same subject. We recently reported that deteriorated animals (middle-aged and/or hypertensive) chronically treated with nimodipine (via osmotic minipumps) exhibit higher learning scores. This information indicates that nimodipine can reverse the impairing effects of either aging or hypertension on learning; the presence of the two conditions, however, produces a severe impairment that can be partially reversed by this drug. Therefore, we propose that mature and middle-aged SHR represent a model for the screening of potentially useful drugs in the treatment of learning disorders, probably associated with hypertension and/or aging. Nevertheless, it must be remembered that the SHR is a genetic model and the appearance of neural disturbances could be a parallel genetic phenomenon and not necessarily or exclusively related to hypertension per se.

Effects of 5-HT4 receptor agonists and antagonists in learning.

In the present work, the effects of pre- or post-training (ip) injection of BIMU1 and BIMU8 (5-HT4 agonists) were figured out in the autoshaping learning task. Furthermore, the post-training effects of these agonists after treatment with SDZ 205-557 and GR 125487D (5-HT4 antagonists) or p-Chloroamphetamine (PCA) were also explored. Animals were individually trained in a lever-press response on the autoshaping task and 24 hours later were tested. The results showed that pre-training injection of BIMU1 (5 20 mg/Kg) or BIMU8 (20 mg/Kg) increased the CR; in contrast, the post-training administration of BIMU1 (10-20 mg/Kg) or BIMU8 (5 and 20 mg/Kg) decreased it. Further experiments revealed that the post-training injections of SDZ 205-557 (1.0-10.0 mg/Kg) or GR 125487D (0.39-1.56 mg/Kg) by themselves did not alter the CR. When BIMU1 or BIMU8 was administered to rats pretreated with SDZ 205-557 (10 mg/Kg) or GR 125487D (0.78 mg/Kg), the decrement induced by 5-HT4 the agonists was reversed; in contrast, the administration of PCA failed to modify the CR or the agonist-induced responses. The findings showed that the pre-training stimulation of 5-HT4 receptors enhanced the acquisition of CR, while, post-training activation of 5-HT4 receptors, impaired the consolidation of learning. The latter effect was not altered by PCA pretreatment. The data show that 5-HT4 receptors are involved in the acquisition and consolidation of learning. It seems that postsynaptic 5-HT4 receptors are involved in the latter effect.

A pharmacological analysis of serotonergic receptors: Effects of their activation of blockade in learning

1. The authors have tested several 5-HT selective agonists and antagonists (5-HT1A/1B, 5-HT2A/2B/2C, 5-HT3 or 5-HT4), an uptake inhibitor and 5-HT depletors in the autoshaping learning task. 2. The present work deals with the receptors whose stimulation increases or decreases learning. 3. Impaired consolidation of learning was observed after the presynaptic activation of 5-HT1B, 5-HT3 or 5-HT4 or the blockade of postsynaptic 5-HT2C/2B receptors. 4. In contrast, an improvement occurred after the presynaptic activation of 5-HT1A, 5-HT2C, and the blockade of presynaptic 5-HT2A, 5-HT2C and 5-HT3 receptors. 5. The blockade of postsynaptic 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT3 or 5-HT4 receptors and 5-HT inhibition of synthesis and its depletion did no alter learning by themselves. 6. The present data suggest that multiple pre- and postsynaptic serotonergic receptors are involved in the consolidation of learning. 7. Stimulation of most 5-HT receptors increases learning, however, some of 5-HT subtypes seem to limit the data storage. 8. Furthermore, the role of 5-HT receptors in learning seem to require an interaction with glutamatergic, GABAergic and cholinergic neurotransmission systems.

Effects of aging and hypertension on learning, memory, and activity in rats

A comparison between behavioral alterations induced by hypertension and aging was made in spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) of different ages (3-24 months old), trained to perform autoshaping learning and activity tasks. Food-deprived rats received autoshaping training sessions during 6 days; the animals were retrained 1 month later. Two weeks after autoshaping training, the animals were evaluated in the spontaneous activity task during 2 consecutive days. The results show an age-related decrease in learning, memory, and spontaneous activity. Independently of the age group compared, WKY, though showing lower activity, learned and retrieved more than SHR. Accordingly, the reductions in learning and memory were correlated with both aging and hypertension. The combined influence of these two factors had synergistic detrimental effects on cognitive functions.

Role of 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors in learning.

The effects of post-training (i.p.) injection of TFMPP, mCPP, DOI or 1-NP in the autoshaping learning task was explored. Furthermore, the post-training effects of these agonists after treatment with the antagonists (+/-)-pindolol, (+/-)-propranolol, NAN-190, ketanserin, ritanserin, mesulergine, MDL-72222 or p-chloroamphetamine (5-HT depleter) were studied. Rats were individually trained with a lever-press response (conditioned response; CR) on the autoshaping task and tested 24 h later. The results showed that the injection of TFMPP (1-10 mg/kg), mCPP (1-10 mg/kg), 1-NP (0.1-1.0 mg/kg) or mesulergine (0.4 mg/kg) decreased the rate of CR, while DOI (0.01-0.1 mg/kg) and ritanserin (0.5 mg/kg) and ketanserin (0.001-0.1 mg/kg) increased it. However, the effect induced by TFMPP was reversed by (+/-)-pindolol, ketanserin, ritanserin and PCA; the mCPP-induced effect was antagonized by (+/-)-propranolol, ketanserin, ritanserin and MDL-72222; and the effect produced by 1-NP was reversed by ketanserin, ritanserin and PCA. In addition, the increment in CR provoked by DOI was enhanced by ketanserin, and reversed by ritanserin, mesulergine and PCA. These findings suggest that TFMPP, 1-NP and DOI exerted their effects via stimulation of presynaptic 5-HT receptors. The effects of mCPP most probably reflect activation of postsynaptic receptors. The present data suggest that both 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A-2C receptors play a significant role in the consolidation of learning.

Role of 5-HT1-like receptors in the increase in external carotid blood flow induced by 5-hydroxytryptamine in the dog.

This study investigated the receptor involved in the 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)-induced increase in external carotid blood flow in pentobarbital-anaesthetized dogs. One-minute intracarotid (i.c.) infusions of 5-HT (0.3, 1, 3 and 10 micrograms) and 5-carboxamidotryptamine (5-CT; 0.01, 0.03, 0.1 and 0.3 micrograms) produced dose-dependent increases in external carotid blood flow without changes in mean arterial blood pressure or heart rate. After vagosympathectomy, the above vasodilator responses to 5-HT and 5-CT were abolished and remained so even after restoration of carotid vascular tone with noradrenaline. Furthermore, the 5-HT- and 5-CT-induced increases in external carotid blood flow were not modified by the 5-HT2 receptor antagonist, ritanserin (100 micrograms/kg i.v.), nor the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, 1 alpha H,3 alpha, 5 alpha H-tropan-3yl-3,5-dichlorobenzoate (MDL 72222; 140 micrograms/kg i.v.), but were potently and dose dependently antagonized by the mixed 5-HT1-like and 5-HT2 receptor blocker, methiothepin (3, 10 and 30 micrograms/kg i.v.). Interestingly, the 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptor antagonist, cyanopindolol (100, 300 and 1000 micrograms/kg i.v.), blocked the effects of 5-HT, but the block was not elicited in a dose-dependent manner, with only the response induced by 0.3 microgram/min 5-CT being significantly antagonized by the highest dose of cyanopindolol; however, this blockade was not selective. Unlike 5-HT and 5-CT, 1 min i.c. infusions of either the 5-HT1C/5-HT2 receptor agonist, 1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-aminopropane (DOI; 30-300 micrograms), or the 5-HT3 receptor agonist, 2-methyl-5-HT (10-300 micrograms), were devoid of effects on the canine external carotid blood flow. It is concluded that the 5-HT-induced increase in external carotid blood flow is mediated by 5-HT1-like receptors probably located on carotid sympathetic nerves. These receptors, however, do not seem to correspond to either the 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B or 5-HT1C receptor subtypes.

Lithium, phenserine, memantine and pioglitazone reverse memory deficit and restore phospho-GSK3β decreased in hippocampus in intracerebroventricular streptozotocin induced memory deficit model.

Intracerebroventricular (ICV) streptozotocin (STZ) treated rat has been described as a suitable model for sporadic Alzheimers disease (AD). Central application of STZ has demonstrated behavioral and neurochemical features that resembled those found in human AD. Chronic treatments with antioxidants, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors, or improving glucose utilization drugs have reported a beneficial effect in ICV STZ-treated rats. In the present study the post-training administration of a glycogen synthase kinase (GSK3) inhibitor, lithium; antidementia drugs: phenserine and memantine, and insulin sensitizer, pioglitazone on memory function of ICV STZ-rats was assessed. In these same animals the phosphorylated GSK3β (p-GSK3β) and total GSK3β levels were determined, and importantly GSK3β regulates the tau phosphorylation responsible for neurofibrillary tangle formation in AD. Wistar rats received ICV STZ application (3mg/kg twice) and 2 weeks later short- (STM) and long-term memories (LTM) were assessed in an autoshaping learning task. Animals were sacrificed immediately following the last autoshaping session, their brains removed and dissected. The enzymes were measured in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC) by western blot. ICV STZ-treated rats showed a memory deficit and significantly decreased p-GSK3β levels, while total GSK3β did not change, in both the hippocampus and PFC. Memory impairment was reversed by lithium (100mg/kg), phenserine (1mg/kg), memantine (5mg/kg) and pioglitazone (30 mg/kg). The p-GSK3β levels were restored by lithium, phenserine and pioglitazone in the hippocampus, and restored by lithium in the PFC. Memantine produced no changes in p-GSK3β levels in neither the hippocampus nor PFC. Total GSK3β levels did not change with either drug. Altogether these results show the beneficial effects of drugs with different mechanisms of actions on memory impairment induced by ICV STZ, and restored p-GSK3β levels, a kinase key of signaling cascade of insulin receptor.

Systemic injection of p-chloroamphetamine eliminates the effect of the 5-HT3 compounds on learning☆

There is evidence that 5-HT3 antagonists enhance learning and memory; however, their mechanisms of action are unknown. The aim of the present work was to investigate further the role of 5-HT3 receptors involved in learning, using the specific 5-HT3 agonist 1-(m-chlorophenyl)-biguanide (mCPBG) and the 5-HT3 antagonists ondansetron and tropisetron. p-Chloroamphetamine (PCA) pretreatment was used to determine whether pre- or postsynaptic 5-HT3 receptors are involved in learning. The posttraining intraperitoneal (IP) injection of each drug was analyzed on a lever-press response on autoshaping, which is an associative learning task. The results showed that mCPBG impaired retention of the conditioned response (CR), whereas tropisetron and ondansetron improved it. In other animals, PCA alone did not affect CR but was able to block the effects of the 5-HT3 ligands. The present data suggest that the actions of 5-HT3 compounds could be due to their interaction with presynaptic 5-HT3 receptors.

Effects of the 5-HT receptor antagonists GR127935 (5-HT1B/1D) and MDL100907 (5-HT2A) in the consolidation of learning

We have previously reported that 5-HT1B/1D and 5-HT2A/2B/2C receptors play a role in learning and memory. The present investigation was devoted to analyze further in the autoshaping learning task: (1) the effects of the 5-HT1A/1B/1D receptor agonist, GR46611, the 5-HT1B/1D receptor antagonist, GR127935, and the selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist, MDL100907. Consistent with a role of 5-HT1B/1D receptors in learning, the post-training injection of GR46611 (1-10 mg/kg) decreased the consolidation of learning whereas GR127935 (10 mg/kg) increased it; the effects of both drugs were reversed by PCA pretreatment. GR127935 abolished the decrease induced by GR46611, TFMPP and mCPP, whereas MDL100907 (0.1-3.0 mg/kg) had no effect by itself but abolished the effects of DOI, ketanserin and TFMPP and moderately inhibited the effects elicited by mCPP, 1-NP and mesulergine. Neither did GR127935 nor MDL100907 significantly modify the increase in the consolidation of learning induced by 8-OH-DPAT. Thus, the present findings suggest that stimulation of presynaptic 5-HT1B/1D receptors impairs the consolidation of learning whilst stimulation of 5-HT2A/2C receptors enhances it; the blockade of 5-HT2A receptors has no effects. In addition, 5-HT2 receptors seem to modulate this cognitive stage.

The role of nitric oxide in angiotensin II-induced renal vasoconstriction in renovascular hypertension

Objective To evaluate the contribution of nitric oxide to the regulation of angiotensin II-induced renal vasoconstriction in normotensive rats and in rats with aortic coarctation-induced hypertension. Methods We evaluated the renal vascular reactivity of nonischemic kidney to angiotensin II with and without nitric oxide synthesis inhibitor (NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester) in the isolated perfused kidney. The nitrite concentration in renal perfusate of nonischemic kidney was measured as an index of nitric oxide released and the activity of nitric oxide synthase in renal tissue was determined by production of [3H]-L-citrulline. Results The perfusion of NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester potentiated angiotensin II-induced renal vasoconstriction in normotensive rats but had no effect on hypertensive rats. The release of nitrites in kidneys from hypertensive rats was lower than that in kidneys from normotensive rats. The activity of renal nitric oxide synthase was less in the hypertensive rats than it was in the normotensive rats. Conclusions Nitric oxide counteracts the vasoconstrictor effect of angiotensin II in normotensive rats, whereas this protective mechanism is impaired in hypertensive rats. This impairment potentiates effect of angiotensin II on vascular resistance, thereby contributing to the development of high blood pressure. J Hypertens 16:697–703