Eran Ketter

Destination image repair while combatting crises: tourism marketing in Africa

ABSTRACT The current study analyzes the media strategies used by Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries to repair their destination image during and after crisis, and attract international tourism. There has been to date a dearth of academic studies that looked at the marketing and branding of destinations in SSA. The few studies that have appeared on this topic focused primarily on a single case study, rather than examining various models and theories that belong to the field of image repair. We, therefore, sought to analyze a variety of case studies to look for common strategies among SSA nations. The conceptual framework used in this research was the ‘multi-step model for altering place image.’ The study was based on qualitative content analyses of news reports, press interviews, campaigns and other marketing initiatives. These items were located in three sources between the years 2008 and 2015: official websites and social media pages of the national tourism boards of SSA countries, news, reports about African countries published in three main international media outlets and reports in a global tourism news website.The studys conclusions show that SSA marketers and policy-makers used three groups of strategies to promote their destinations during and after tourism crises: (1) source-focused strategies (media cooperation and media relations, physical/economic threats and media blockage, and internet use as an alternative source), (2) message-focused strategies (ignoring the crisis, negative image acknowledgement, scale of crisis reduction, counter-message delivery, association with well-known brands and celebrities, tackling the crisis and the spin of liabilities into assets), and (3) audience-focused strategies (patriotism and personal/national heritage, and target audience change). We discovered that despite the differences among the countries, marketers in this area have adopted similar strategies to combat crises in order to repair destination images.

Destination marketing during and following crises: combating negative images in Asia

ABSTRACT The goal of this study is to analyze which strategies Asian officials and marketers have adopted in order to combat stereotypes, negative perceptions, and crises in order to repair destination images and bring back visitors. The study includes qualitative content analyses of news reports, press interviews, and campaigns in order to uncover media policy, strategies, events, and marketing initiatives used since 2008. The conceptual framework used was the “multi-step model for altering place image”, which offers three types of strategies to use in order to repair a destination’s negative image during and after a crisis: source, message, and audience.

Marketing and Destination Branding

Chapters 1 and 2 dealt with the image of developing countries, factors that construct their media and public images, and with the consequences of the problematic image. The challenging question is how can these countries correct and restore their image in the international media and among world audiences. Since the beginning of the 1990s, we have witnessed the development of a new academic and professional field called “place/destination branding” which relies on the knowledge we had, even before the 1990s, on “place marketing”. Our analysis of the images of developing countries that we present in this book shows that several such countries have used the knowledge accumulated around the world in order to restore their media and public images. Nevertheless, most of these countries would do even better if they used that knowledge and took it into account in their future marketing and branding plans. This chapter will walk the reader from the broad concept of “place marketing” to the specific concepts of “destination branding” and “nation branding” and their practical aspects. Among other topics, this journey will include the issues of analysis, planning, development and implementation of the branding process and tourism marketing strategies, which can serve destinations in their efforts to achieve a more attractive image.

Eating with EatWith: analysing tourism-sharing economy consumers

In recent years, a growing body of research has analysed tourism-sharing economy users. While several studies have revealed the specific motivations of tourists for participating in such activities, there is an apparent lacuna with regard to understanding the generic motivations of such consumers. In response to this literature gap, the current study explores the motivations of these users, aiming to shed light on their values, lifestyles and consumption preferences. The motivations of sharing economy users were examined using a quantitative survey involving 738 consumers of EatWith – a global sharing economy marketplace that offers a communal dining experience. The studys findings indicate that EatWith users have the generic primary motivation of achievement. The findings present several contributions to scholars and practitioners, and propose that sharing economy users are affected both by the specific motivations of social considerations, environmental considerations and economic considerations, and by their primary motivations of ideals, achievement and self-expression.

Tourism Marketing for Destinations with Negative Images

While some destinations enjoy a positive image and a constant influx of tourists, this is not always the case. Other places, particularly in developing countries, may suffer from repeated crises and are associated with negative stereotypes that keep tourists away. In the previous chapters we learned that tourist destinations in developing countries tend to suffer from negative stereotypes, generalizations and perceptions; that there are various factors that shape these negative images in the mass media; and that destination marketing practices can alter these images. The current chapter will explore four key issues: (a) the use of image restoration discourse to improve a destination’s image; (b) the role of crisis communication in responding to sudden crises; (c) the multi-step model for altering the place’s image, and its implication for destination marketing; and (d) the marketing tool of media strategies and the relevant strategies for marketing destinations that suffer from negative stereotypes and other undesirable images.

Final Observations and Insights

Using the conceptual frame of the “multi-step model for altering place image” and integrating theory and practice, we analyzed media strategies used by destinations in the developing world to deal with unexpected crises, stereotypes and prolonged negative images. Such images had developed over many years, and were reinforced in the public mind by superficial and sensational media coverage. In the case of a destination suffering from a prolonged image problem, it seems almost unrealistic to expect tourists to visit such a destination and put aside negative or threatening perceptions and stereotypes, just because of an advertising campaign, a public relations event or other promotional tool, often used by marketers of “regular destinations” that do not suffer from negative images (Anholt, 2005).

Introduction: Tourism Marketing for Developing Countries

This book focuses on tourism marketing for countries in the developing world. According to the World Bank, the term “developing world” is used to describe low- and middle-income economies, in which the gross national income (GNI) per capita in 2014 was under

Factors Influencing the Media Image of Developing Countries

12,746 (World Bank, 2014b). However, the term “developing country” is not only a financial indicator; it points to a complex system of ties between historical, economic, political and social factors (Todaro, 1992). In many developing countries, this system results in a long list of challenges, including poverty, limited effectiveness of public services, safety and security issues, public health issues, inadequate access to technology, poor public education services and low level of environmental sustainability (Blowfield and Frynas, 2005; Mansfeld and Pizam, 2006; Avgerou, 2008; Olken and Pande, 2012). Even in the context of tourism, although developing countries aim to generate revenues and promote development through tourism, it is considerably different from tourism planning, developing and marketing in developed countries (Reid, 2003).

Perceptions, Stereotypes and Media Image of the Developing World

The purpose of this chapter is to develop the discussion about the problematic image of the developing countries in the international media and to try to understand why the coverage patterns of these countries are characterized by low visibility, stereotypes and generalization, as we saw in the previous chapter. After a brief discussion regarding relations between global communications and the global system, this chapter will examine the seven factors that influence construction of the image of developing countries in the international media: the geographical distance of the developing world from the international media headquarters; problematic news definitions of the developing world; the small number of reporters allocated to cover the developing world; the developing world covered by Western journalists; residents of the developing world not being perceived as the target audience of the international media; the low social-political-economic status of the developing world; and developing countries’ weak public relations efforts.

Marketing Middle East Destinations

The image of a country can affect the decisions made by a wide range of audiences, such as foreign investors, tourists, consumers, students, entrepreneurs, trading partners, officials of other countries, potential donors and multilateral agencies (Anholt, 2009; Martinez and Alvarez, 2010; White and Radic, 2014). In the field of tourism, we know that the public image and the media image of a country are crucial for many decisions and behaviors made by tourists, including whether and where to visit or travel in that country, what will be the aim and content of the visit, and what will be the length of the stay. This is why analyzing, understanding and measuring the projected image is a necessary step for every marketer and is crucial for every marketing initiative (Khan, 2013).