Eric A. Stewart

School social bonds, school climate, and school misbehavior: A multilevel analysis

This research examines the extent to which individual- and school-level factors explain variation in school misbehavior among a nationally representative sample of high school students. The results reveal that higher levels of school attachment, school commitment, and belief in school rules are associated with lower levels of misbehavior in school, net of family and peer influences. With regard to school climate, larger schools in urban areas explain variations in school misbehavior. Overall, the results suggest that individual- and school-level covariates should be included in the study of school misbehavior.

“I Ain't Gonna Let No One Disrespect Me” Does the Code of the Street Reduce or Increase Violent Victimization among African American Adolescents?

The authors extended Elijah Andersons “code of the street” thesis to explain victimization among a longitudinal sample of 720 African American adolescents from 259 neighborhoods. Specifically, the authors assessed whether the street code promotes greater safety or aggravates the risk for victimization. Anderson portrayed the code of the street, which encourages individuals to appear aggressive and tough, as an adaptation necessary for safely functioning in a disadvantaged, high-crime community. He theorized that adopting the street code promotes respect among ones peers and would-be attackers, thereby increasing ones safety against victimization. The authors found no support for the idea that adopting the street code reduces victimization. Instead, their findings suggest that individuals who adopt the street code have higher levels of victimization. Furthermore, adopting the street code exacerbates the risk for victimization beyond what would be the case from living in a dangerous and disorganized neighborhood.

Integrating the general theory of crime into an explanation of violent victimization among female offenders

In 1999, Schreck extended Gottfredson and Hirschis (1990) self-control theory to explain victimization and the victim-offender overlap. His analysis of college students revealed that low self-control was significantly associated with victimization. We build on Shrecks work by assessing whether low self-control contributes to victimization among a sample of female offenders while controlling for routine activities/lifestyle behaviors. We advanced two research questions: (1) Can self-control theory account for variations in victimization? (2) Do risky lifestyle behaviors mediate the effects of self-control? The results were consistent with the hypothesis that low self-control is a risk factor for victimization, even after lifestyle behaviors were controlled.

Structure and Culture in African American Adolescent Violence: A Partial Test of the “Code of the Street” Thesis

Researchers studying the race–violence relationship have tended to focus on either structural or cultural explanations. Although both explanations are important, they tend to be incomplete. We draw on Anderson’s “code of the street” thesis, which combines structural and cultural explanations to explain the high rates of violence among African American adolescents. Anderson argues that the street code, which supports the use of violence, is a cultural adaptation to negative neighborhood structural conditions, as well as family characteristics and racial discrimination. Using two waves of data from 720 African American adolescents from 259 neighborhoods, we investigated whether neighborhood context, family type, and discrimination influenced adoption of the street code. We also assessed whether the street code mediated the effects of neighborhood context, family characteristics, and racial discrimination on violent delinquency. Consistent with Anderson’s hypotheses, neighborhood structural characteristics, living in a street family, and discrimination significantly predicted adopting the street code. Moreover, the street code mediated about one fifth of neighborhood effects on violent delinquency, about one fifth of the effect of racial discrimination, and about 4 percent of the effect of family characteristics on violent delinquency. Overall, the results suggest that neighborhood context, family characteristics, and racial discrimination directly influence adopting the street code, and partially influence violence indirectly through the street code.

Incidents of discrimination and risk for delinquency: A longitudinal test of strain theory with an African American sample

This article examines the relationship between racial discrimination and delinquency. Using longitudinal data collected on approximately 700 African American children, we begin by establishing an association between exposure to discrimination and delinquent behavior. Next, we use structural equation modeling to test various hypotheses regarding the emotional and cognitive factors that mediate this association. For boys, the association between discrimination and delinquency is mediated by feelings of anger and depression and by the belief that aggression is a necessary interpersonal tactic. The results are somewhat different for girls. Although anger and depression mediate part of the effect of discrimination on delinquency, discrimination continues to display a small but significant direct effect. The implications of these findings for criminological theory are discussed.

Supportive Parenting Moderates the Effect of Discrimination upon Anger, Hostile View of Relationships, and Violence among African American Boys

Studies have shown that exposure to discrimination increases the probability that African American adolescents will engage in delinquent behavior, especially acts of violence. The present study extended this research by examining the extent to which supportive parenting buffers a youth from these deleterious consequences of discrimination. Analyses based upon two waves of data from a sample of 332 African American adolescent males and their caretakers supported this hypothesis. Further, the results indicated that there are two avenues whereby supportive parenting reduces the probability that discrimination will lead to violence. First, supportive parenting decreases the chances that discrimination will lead to anger and a hostile view of relationships. Second, supportive parenting lowers the risk that anger or a hostile view of relationships, when they develop, will result in violence.

The Effect of Neighborhood Context on the College Aspirations of African American Adolescents

Previous research on educational aspirations has focused almost exclusively on micro-level predictors of educational aspirations. Notably absent from these studies are measures reflecting the neighborhood context in which adolescents live. Drawing on Wilson’s theory of neighborhood effects, the present study examines the extent to which neighborhood structural disadvantage predicts college aspirations among African American adolescents. The results show that concentrated neighborhood disadvantage exerts a significant influence on college aspirations, even when accounting for the micro-level context of adolescents. Overall, the findings suggest that living in a disadvantaged context lowers college aspirations among African American adolescents.

Low Self‐Control and Contact with the Criminal Justice System in a Nationally Representative Sample of Males

Prior research on law enforcement and court system actions suggests that offender demeanor influences practitioner decision making. However, few studies have examined a key implication of this body of work—namely, criminogenic factors associated not only with offending but also with demeanor may result in a greater likelihood of contact with and formal processing by law enforcement and the courts. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we test the hypothesis that low self‐control, which is associated with a range of characteristics that might influence practitioner perceptions of individual offenders’ demeanors, will predict greater contact and formal processing. Briefly, we found that low self‐control was consistently related to criminal justice system involvement as measured by police contacts, arrests, age at first police contact, and arrest onset. The implications of the findings for theory and research are discussed.

Beyond the Interactional Relationship between Delinquency and Parenting Practices: The Contribution of Legal Sanctions

In this article, the authors move beyond an interactional perspective on the relationship between delinquency and parenting by examining the mediating effects of legal sanctions. Structural equation modeling was employed to test hypothesized relationships. Three waves of data from a sample of 407 Midwestern adolescents and their parents were used. The findings indicated that legal sanctions completely mediated the influence of delinquent behavior on parenting and partially mediated the influence of parenting on delinquency. The findings suggest that official labeling helps account for both continuity in antisocial activities and disruptions in parenting practices.

SOCIAL ADVERSITY, GENETIC VARIATION, STREET CODE, AND AGGRESSION: A GENETICLLY INFORMED MODEL OF VIOLENT BEHAVIOR

Although the diathesis-stress model guides most genetically informed behavior science, the present study investigates the hypotheses derived from the differential susceptibility perspective. This model posits that those persons most vulnerable to adverse social environments are the same ones who reap the most benefit from environmental support. Using longitudinal data from a sample of several hundred African American males, we examined the manner in which variants in 3 genes—5-serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT), dopamine receptor gene (DRD4), and monoamine oxidase gene (MAOA)—modulate the effect of community and family adversity on adoption of the street code and aggression. We found strong support for the differential susceptibility perspective.