Eric Rassin

Paradoxical and less paradoxical effects of thought suppression: A critical review

The process of consciously trying to avoid certain thoughts is referred to as thought suppression. Experimental research has documented that thought suppression may have paradoxical effects in that it leads to an increased frequency of the to-be-suppressed thought intruding consciousness. It has also been claimed that suppression has disruptive effects on episodic memory (i.e., a less paradoxical effect). The present article critically evaluates studies on the paradoxical and less paradoxical effects of thought suppression. More specifically, the issue of whether thought suppression plays a causative role in the development of various psychopathological symptoms is addressed. While laboratory studies have come up with highly consistent findings about the paradoxical effects of thought suppression, there is, as yet, little reason to believe that such effects are implicated in the etiology of obsessions, phobias, or other psychopathological conditions. Relatively little work has been done on the alleged memory effects of thought suppression. The studies that have examined this issue have found mixed results. Accordingly, the case for the amnestic power of thought suppression is weak. Alternative explanations and competing theories are discussed, and it is concluded that research concerned with the psychopathological consequences of thought suppression would benefit from development of better taxonomies of intrusive thinking and cognitive avoidance strategies.

Fantasy proneness and cognitive failures as correlates of dissociative experiences

The Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES) is a widely used instrument for screening dissociative psychopathology. Yet, some authors have argued that dissociation is a poorly defined concept and that the experiences tapped by the DES may well be related to everyday cognitive failures and/or fantasy proneness. To examine this issue, two independent studies were conducted. In study 1, a sample of 77 undergraduate students completed the DES, the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) and a fantasy proneness scale (i.e. the Creative Experiences Questionnaire; CEQ). Positive and significant correlations were found between DES, on the one hand, and CFQ and CEQ, on the other hand. Partial correlations showed that both CFQ and CEQ make an unique contribution in predicting DES scores. These findings were replicated in study 2 that also relied on a nonclinical sample (N=51). Taken together, the findings of study 1 and 2 underline the idea that relatively benign phenomena such as cognitive lapses and fantasy proneness drive the dissociative experiences sampled by the DES. This suggests that there are limitations to the DESs utility as a screening tool for dissociative pathology.

The thought-action fusion scale: further evidence for its reliability and validity

Thought-action fusion (TAF) refers to a set of cognitive biases that are thought to play a role in the development of obsessional phenomena. To measure these biases, R. Shafran, D. S. Thordarson, and S. Rachman (1996; Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 379-391) developed the TAF-scale. They concluded that the TAF-scale possesses adequate psychometric qualities. The current study sought to further explore the reliability and validity of the TAF-scale. Results indicate that the TAF-scale has good internal consistency. TAF-scores correlated with self-reports of obsessional problems. Furthermore, mean scores in a mixed sample of anxiety disordered patients were higher than those in a normal sample. However, temporal consistency was somewhat disappointing. Also, the question remains whether TAF is specific to obsessive-compulsive disorder or taps more pervasive biases that play a role in a variety of disorders.

Relationships between thought-action fusion, thought suppression and obsessive-compulsive symptoms: a structural equation modeling approach

Research has shown that there are strong similarities in content between the obsessions and compulsions that characterize obsessive-compulsive disorder and nonclinical obsessions and compulsions. However, clinical and nonclinical obsessions and compulsions do differ with respect to characteristics like frequency, intensity, discomfort and elicited resistance. Two separate concepts have been invoked to explain how normal obsessions and compulsions may develop into clinical phenomena. First, it is suggested that thought-action fusion (TAF) contributes to obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Second, thought suppression may intensify obsessive-compulsive symptoms due to its paradoxical effect on intrusive thoughts. Although both phenomena have been found to contribute to obsessive-compulsive symptoms, possible interactions between these two have never been investigated. The current study explored how TAF and thought suppression interact in the development of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Undergraduate psychology students (N = 173) completed questionnaires pertaining to TAF, thought suppression and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Covariances between the scores on these questionnaires were analyzed by means of structural equation modeling. Results suggest that TAF triggers thought suppression, while thought suppression, in turn, promotes obsessive-compulsive symptoms.

Thought-action fusion and thought suppression in obsessive-compulsive disorder

To examine the significance of thought-action fusion (TAF) and thought suppression tendencies, the present study obtained pre- and post-treatment questionnaire data on these constructs in a sample of OCD patients (n=24) and non-OCD anxiety patients (n=20). Results indicate that TAF and suppression are correlated with severity of psychopathology. Yet, the associations between TAF and psychopathology are not typical for OCD, but do also occur in other anxiety disorders (e.g., panic disorder, post traumatic stress disorder, and social phobia). As well, mean scores on the TAF and thought suppression measures dropped significantly from pre- to post-treatment, indicating that TAF and thought suppression are susceptible to change during psychotherapy.

Dissociation, schizotypy, and fantasy proneness in undergraduate students.

Previous research has noted a robust correlation between dissociation and schizophrenia-like symptoms. One way to interpret the relationship between dissociation and schizotypy is to assume that it is an artifact of fantasy proneness. In the present study, 152 undergraduates completed measures of dissociation, schizotypy, and fantasy proneness. Dissociative tendencies were found to be related to the full range of schizotypal features. Regression analysis showed that schizotypy still contributed to the prediction of dissociative tendencies when variance related to fantasy proneness was extracted. These results indicate that the close connection between dissociation and schizotypy cannot be interpreted in terms of an artifact produced by fantasy proneness. Thus, the overlap between dissociation and schizotypy warrants systematic study.

The correlation between thought–action fusion and religiosity in a normal sample

Thought-action fusion (TAF) refers to a set of two cognitive biases that are thought to contribute to the inflation of feelings of responsibility for ones own thoughts, and thus to the development of obsession. Therefore, insight into the origins of TAF is a clinically relevant research topic. The present study examined the association between religiosity and TAF. Undergraduate students (N=100) completed questionnaires concerning religion, TAF and obsessive-compulsive complaints. Results indicate that religiosity is, indeed, correlated with certain aspects of TAF. Furthermore, correlational patterns differed between Catholic and Protestant subsamples.

Disgust and psychopathological symptoms in a nonclinical sample

There is little doubt that disgust sensitivity plays a role in the development of small animal phobias. However, it has been suggested that the basic emotion of disgust is implied in a broad range of psychopathological conditions. The present study examined the relationship between disgust sensitivity and symptoms of phobias (other than animal phobias), obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, and eating disorder in a nonclinical sample. Undergraduate psychology students were asked to complete the Disgust Sensitivity Questionnaire, as well as measures of phobic (Fear Questionnaire), obsessive-compulsive (Maudsley Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory), depressive (Beck Depression Inventory), and eating disorder (Restraint Scale) symptomatology. Results showed that disgust sensitivity was only related to symptoms of agoraphobia and obsessive-compulsive disorder. The present findings cast doubts on the idea that disgust sensitivity is a central factor underlying a broad range of psychopathological conditions.

The White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI) focuses on failing suppression attempts

Experimental studies have produced evidence to suggest that suppressing unwanted thoughts paradoxically results in even more unwanted thoughts. Therefore, suppression is considered to be an inadequate control strategy. Wegner and Zanakos (1994; Journal of Personality, 62, 615–640) introduced the White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI) as a measure to identify people who chronically tend to suppress unwanted thoughts. However, recent studies suggest that the WBSI does not exclusively measure thought suppression, but also addresses the experience of intrusive thoughts. Hence, the WBSI does not seem to measure suppression per se, but rather failing suppression. Three studies elaborate on this idea. In study 1, factor analysis of 674 non‐clinical WBSI scores is found to support the hypothesis that the WBSI addresses both suppression and intrusion. By and large, study 2 replicates these findings in a clinical sample (N=106). In study 3, an alternative suppression questionnaire is introduced, focusing on suppression and intrusions, but also on successful suppression. It is concluded that the WBSI, and thought suppression research in general, is biased toward failing suppression attempts, and has ignored the possibility of successful suppression. Copyright

Thought-action fusion and anxiety disorders symptoms in normal adolescents.

The present study examined thought-action fusion (TAF) in a large sample of normal adolescents (n=427). Participants completed the Thought-Action Fusion Questionnaire for Adolescents (TAFQ-A) and scales measuring trait anxiety, symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder, other anxiety disorders, and depression. Results showed that the TAFQ-A is a reliable instrument assessing two dimensions of TAF, viz. Morality (i.e., the belief that unacceptable thoughts are morally equivalent to overt actions) and Likelihood (i.e., the belief that thinking of an unacceptable or disturbing situation will increase the probability that that situation actually occurs). Furthermore, TAF was not only associated with symptoms of OCD, but also with symptoms of other anxiety disorders and depression. However, when controlling for levels of trait anxiety, most connections between TAF and anxiety disorders symptoms disappeared. Symptoms of OCD and generalised anxiety remained significantly related to TAF. Altogether, the data are supportive of the notion that TAF is involved in a broad range of anxiety disorders and in particular OCD.