Erica Sainsbury

Investigating Motivation in Context

Motivation is increasingly recognized as contextually situated, and this recognition has led to considerable research into motivation in authentic learning environments such as classrooms. Developing sociocultural perspectives on motivation, however, requires consideration of theoretical issues beyond those of context. This article discusses two separate empirical studies that are grounded in sociocultural principles in that they reconceptualize the constructs of interest and student regulatory activities as fundamentally social in nature and origin. Using multiple methodologies that allow focus at the levels of both classroom and individual, these studies employ the notion of transformative internalization and subsequent externalization to explain the social origins of individual motivational processes. The study of interest followed a small group of students within a primary science classroom, and employed a range of qualitative methods including observation of lessons, the videotaping of lesson segment...

Assessment as a vehicle for learning: extending collaboration into testing

Tertiary educators increasingly recognize the benefits for student learning of collaboration and group work; however, it is commonly perceived that examinations should be completed without the opportunity for interaction with other learners or use of relevant resources. An alternative approach is suggested in this article, based on the sociocultural concept that learning is a fundamentally social process, and on the notion of dynamic assessment (Magnusson et al. 1997). The primary advantage of this approach is that students are given the opportunity to learn during the assessment, rather than simply being penalized for not knowing. Student feedback, both qualitative and quantitative, suggests that learning is significantly enhanced by this approach. Drawbacks include the possibilities of regressive collaboration and student ‘loafing’; however, these concerns can be addressed within the overall assessment context.

Making sense of theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches: Exploring conceptual change and interest in learning from a sociocultural perspective

Educational psychology has a tradition of considering learning and motivation in terms of the individual and individual functioning. Short-term intervention studies have been common and quantitative measurement of the causes and effects of variables has been the aim of much research. When a sociocultural approach forms the basis of research into psychological constructs, a reappraisal of the research aims and the ways in which data are gathered and analysed is necessary. If the underlying assumption is that learning and motivation are socially and culturally situated, the design of research studies needs to encompass participation in authentic and purposeful activities. In order to develop a rich sociocultural understanding of these constructs, qualitative research designs become increasingly important.In this article, we consider two current research projects, one focusing upon conceptual change amongst students in a first year university class, and the other a classroom-based qualitative study exploring primary (elementary) students’ interest in learning. In each project, data have been collected over time in relation to both social interaction and individual functioning in specific sociocultural contexts. Our frameworks for data collection and approaches to data analysis are discussed in this article, together with some of the issues which we have identified as problematic. In particular we are conscious of the difficulties associated with articulating and describing the nature of social and cultural contexts, especially those with which we are familiar, and of distinguishing their most salient features. We are also critically aware that because our research is situated within very familiar environments, we need to identify and explore our implicit assumptions about those environments and the ways in which our roles as teachers and researchers both coincide and occasionally conflict.

A sociocultural approach to motivation: A long time coming but here at last

Until recently, motivation has been considered to be an individual phenomenon. Motivational theorists have accordingly conceptualised key constructs in individualistic terms and emphasised the individual origins and nature of motivation, although they have also long recognised that contextual or social factors have a significant influence on these individual processes. Recently this conceptualisation has been questioned as theorists have suggested, after Vygotsky, that motivation, like learning and thinking, might be social in nature. This idea was first suggested by Sivan (1986) more than twenty years ago but it received a major impetus with the publication of an article by Hickey (1997) eleven years later. Since that time interest in the social nature of motivation has grown as a small number of book chapters and journal articles have been published and conference papers have been presented on the topic. Although some motivational theorists remain sceptical (e.g. Winne, 2004) of this theoretical development, the inclusion of a section on sociocultural approaches to motivation in Perry, Turner, and Meyers (2006) chapter on classrooms as contexts for motivating learning in the 2nd edition of the Handbook of Educational Psychology suggests that this perspective is being seriously considered by motivational researchers. Similarly, the inclusion of a chapter (Walker, in press-b) on the sociocultural approach to motivation in the 3rd edition of the International Encyclopedia of Education indicates that this approach has achieved some recognition.

Investigating influences on current community pharmacy practice at micro, meso, and macro levels

Background: The nature of Australian community pharmacy is continually evolving, raising the need to explore the current situation in order to understand the potential impact of any changes. Although community pharmacy has the potential to play a greater role in health care, it is currently not meeting this potential. Objective: To investigate the nature of the contemporary practice of community pharmacy in Australia and examine the potential missed opportunities for role expansion in health care. Methods: In‐depth semi‐structured interviews with a wide‐range of key stakeholders within and beyond community pharmacy circles were conducted. Interviews were audio‐recorded, transcribed verbatim and analyzed for emerging themes. Results: Twenty‐seven key informants across Eastern half of Australia were interviewed between December 2014 and August 2015. Several key elements of the current situation representing the social, economic and policy context of community pharmacy have been identified. These elements operate interdependently, influence micro, meso and macro levels of community pharmacy operation and are changing in the current climate. Community pharmacy has untapped potential in primary health care, but it has been slow to change to meet opportunities available in the current situation. Conclusions: As the current situation is complex, interrelated and dynamic with often unintended and unpredictable consequences, this paper suggests that policy makers to consider the micro, meso and macro levels of community pharmacy operation when making significant policy changes. The framework proposed in this study can be a helpful tool to analyze the processes operating at these three levels and their influences on practice.

Identifying achievement goals and their relationship to academic achievement in undergraduate pharmacy students.

Objectives. To compare the achievement goal orientations of first-year with those of third-year undergraduate Australian pharmacy students and to examine the relationship of goal orientations to academic achievement. Methods. The Achievement Goal Questionnaire was administered to first-year and third-year students during class time. Students’ grades were obtained from course coordinators. Results. More first-year students adopted performance-approach and mastery-approach goals than did third-year students. Performance-approach goals were positively correlated with academic achievement in the first year. Chinese Australian students scored the highest in adopting performance-approach goals. Vietnamese Australian students adopted mastery-avoidance goals more than other ethnicities. First-year students were more strongly performance approach goal-oriented than third-year students. Conclusion. Adopting performance-approach goals was positively correlated with academic achievement, while adopting avoidance goals was not. Ethnicity has an effect on the adoption of achievement goals and academic achievement.

An international validation study of two achievement goal measures in a pharmacy education context.

Background Achievement goal theory helps us understand what motivates students to participate in educational activities. However, measuring achievement goals in a precise manner is problematic. Elliot and McGregor’s Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ) and Elliot and Murayama’s revised Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ-R) are widely used to assess students’ achievement goals. Both instruments were developed and validated using undergraduate psychology students in the USA. Methods In this study, our aims were to first of all, assess the construct validity of both questionnaires using a cohort of Australian pharmacy students and, subsequently, to test the generalizability and replicability of these tools more widely in schools of pharmacy in other English-speaking countries. The AGQ and the AGQ-R were administered during tutorial class time. Confirmatory factor analysis procedures, using AMOS 19 software, were performed to determine model fit. Results In contrast to the scale developers’ findings, confirmatory factor analysis supported a superior model fit for the AGQ compared with the AGQ-R, in all countries under study. Conclusion Validating measures of achievement goal motivation for use in pharmacy education is necessary and has implications for future research. Based on these results, the AGQ will be used to conduct future cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses of the achievement goals of undergraduate pharmacy students from these countries.

Investigating the Relationship Between Pharmacy Students’ Achievement Goal Orientations and Preferred Teacher Qualities

Objective. To investigate the relationships between pharmacy students’ preferred teacher qualities and their academic achievement goal orientations. Methods. Participants completed an achievement goal questionnaire and a build-a-teacher task. For the latter, students were given a

Fitness to practise in pharmacy: a study of impairment in professional practice.

20 hypothetical budget to purchase amounts of 9 widely valued teachers’ qualities. Results. Three hundred sixty-six students participated. Students spent most of their budget on the traits of enthusiasm, expertise, and clear presentation style, and the least amount of money on interactive teaching, reasonable workload, warm personality, and intellectually challenging. In relation to achievement goals, negative associations were found between avoidance goals and preferences for teachers who encourage rigorous thinking and self-direction. Conclusion. These novel findings provide a richer profile of the ways students respond to their learning environment. Understanding the relationships between teachers’ characteristics and pharmacy students’ achievement goal orientations will contribute to improving the quality of pharmacy learning and teaching environments.

Multiple policy approaches in improving community pharmacy practice: the case in Indonesia

Objective To explore the opinions and knowledge of Australian pharmacists about impairment in the profession, and their awareness of new legislation regarding impairment and mandatory reporting. Setting Pharmacy practice in Australia. Method Pharmacists’ opinions and knowledge were explored using a purposively designed, de-identified survey distributed by an intermediate mailing house to randomly selected pharmacists registered with the Pharmacy Board. Descriptive statistics and thematic analyses were conducted on the data. Key Outcome Measures This being an explorative study, we analysed various items using standard statistical methods and qualitative thematic analysis for responses to open-ended questions. Results Responses from 370 registered pharmacists were obtained. Of these, nearly 60% were not confident in their knowledge of legislation relating to impairment. The vast majority stated they would consider reporting an impaired colleague in principle, but only after consulting the colleague. Older pharmacists demonstrated increased awareness of new legislation; this was accompanied however, by a marked decrease in confidence regarding knowledge about impairment. Thematic analysis of the qualitative data revealed four main themes: (1) perception of impairment and support systems available (2) stigma related to implications of impairment and whistle-blowing (3) factors affecting reporting of impairment and (4) management of impairment. Conclusion Australian pharmacists in this study recognised the importance of the issue of impairment, but appeared to lack confidence and/or awareness of legislative requirements regarding impairment in the profession. There is a need for educative programs and accessible, profession-specific rehabilitative programs to be instigated for management of impairment in the profession of pharmacy in Australia.