Erik W. Carter

Student Risk Screening Scale: Initial Evidence for Score Reliability and Validity at the High School Level

This article presents findings from a study of the reliability and validity of the Student Risk Screening Scale for use with high school students (N = 674). Results revealed high internal consistency, test—retest stability, interrater reliability, and convergent validity with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire . Predictive validity was established across two academic years, with students at low risk for antisocial behavior differentiated on behavioral (office discipline referrals [ODR]) and academic variables (grade point average [GPA]) from students with moderate and high levels of risk. However, neither ODR nor GPA variables could differentiate between students with moderate-risk or high-risk status. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.

Academic, Social, and Behavioral Characteristics of High School Students with Emotional Disturbances or Learning Disabilities.

In this article, we examine similarities and differences in the academic, social, and behavioral skills of high school students with emotional disturbances (ED) and learning disabilities (LD). Two groups of high school students with ED (n = 45) and LD ( n = 49) were compared on nine measures in academic, behavioral, and social domains using multivariate procedures. Results indicated that there were significant differences in the characteristics of these students, with seven of the original nine variables differentiating group membership. In general, adolescent students with LD exhibited higher levels of social competence and lower levels of behavioral problems as compared to adolescent students with ED. Findings also revealed that a substantial percentage of the variance (50%) between adolescents with ED and adolescents with LD could be explained. Furthermore, the variables in this model differentiated between these two groups, with 78.57% of students with ED and 78.95% of students with LD being correctly classified. Limitations of the study are discussed and directions for future research are offered.

Self-Determination Skills and Opportunities of Transition-Age Youth with Emotional Disturbance and Learning Disabilities

This study examined the self-determination of adolescents with emotional disturbance (ED) and learning disabilities (LD) from the perspectives of special educators, parents, and the students themselves. Differences in self-determination ratings were associated with both disability group and respondent. Specifically, adolescents with ED were found to have lower ratings of self-determination than students with LD, with the most pronounced differences evident from the teacher perspective. Furthermore, students with ED identified infrequent opportunities at school and home for engaging in self-determined behavior, whereas educators and parents differed in their assessments of opportunities in each setting. Implications regarding increasing the self-determination skills and opportunities of adolescents with disabilities are discussed.

Effects of Peer Support Interventions on Students' Access to the General Curriculum and Social Interactions.

Peer support interventions are emerging as an effective alternative to traditional paraprofessional models for assisting students with moderate to severe disabilities to access the general curriculum. To contribute to the refinement of peer support interventions, we evaluated the impact of altering the number of participating peers on the social and academic outcomes of students with and without disabilities. Our findings indicated that changes in the configuration of peer support arrangements differentially affected student outcomes. Specifically, higher levels of social interaction and contact with the general curriculum were observed when students with disabilities worked with two peers relative to one peer. The additive benefits of a second peer provide guidance to educators concerning the implementation of peer support interventions in inclusive classrooms.

Promoting Access to the General Curriculum Using Peer Support Strategies

Promoting access to the general curriculum for students with disabilities has emerged as a central theme of recent legislative and policy initiatives. Ensuring that students with severe disabilities benefit fully from the myriad learning and social opportunities available through the general curriculum remains an important challenge, particularly at the secondary level. We discuss peer support interventions, a form of peer-mediated intervention, as an effective approach for engaging youth with severe disabilities more meaningfully in the general curriculum, as well as promoting academic success for classmates serving as peer supports. We describe the core elements of these interventions, review research pertaining to the academic and social benefits available to participating students, and discuss factors that may account for the effectiveness and social acceptability of this intervention approach.

Promoting Self-Determination for Transition-Age Youth: Views of High School General and Special Educators

Recent developments in policy and practice have emphasized the importance of promoting self-determination and supporting access to the general curriculum for youth with disabilities. To understand how these trends align, we examined the efforts of 340 general and special educators to promote student self-determination in high school classrooms. Educators attached considerable importance to providing instruction in skills related to self-determination and reported addressing these skills with moderate to high frequency in their classrooms. Although opportunities for students with disabilities to learn skills that promote self-determination were reported to be available across the curriculum, there were some differences across teachers and curricular area. We discuss avenues for promoting student self-determination within the general curriculum, as well as offer recommendations for future research.

Increasing Social Interaction Among Adolescents with Intellectual Disabilities and Their General Education Peers: Effective Interventions

Research indicates that peer interaction can have a substantial impact on the lives of adolescents with disabilities. However, social interaction among adolescents with intellectual disabilities and their general education peers typically occurs infrequently in secondary schools. This paper provides a critical analysis of twenty-six empirical interventions aimed at promoting social interaction among adolescents with intellectual disabilities and their general education peers in middle and high school settings. Findings are analyzed with regard to intervention components; student characteristics; interaction settings; measures of interaction; observation procedures; experimental designs; intervention components; and measures of generalization, social validity, and treatment integrity. Based upon findings from this literature, we present recommendations to guide future research and the development of effective social interaction interventions for adolescents with intellectual disabilities in middle and high schools.

Including High School Students with Severe Disabilities in General Education Classes: Perspectives of General and Special Educators, Paraprofessionals, and Administrators.

Increasing the participation of youth with severe disabilities in general education has remained a consistent and prominent focus of legislative, policy, and research initiatives. We examined the perceptions of high school staff regarding the goals, barriers, benefits, outcomes, and supports associated with including adolescents with severe disabilities in general education classes. We found that general and special educators, paraprofessionals, and administrators both converged and diverged in their evaluations of different aspects of general education participation. Despite broad agreement regarding the benefits of and instructional priorities in general education classrooms, stakeholders differed significantly in their perceptions of barriers associated with including students with disabilities in general education classes at their high schools.

Peer Interactions of Students with Intellectual Disabilities and/or Autism: A Map of the Intervention Literature

Social interactions with peers are an important aspect of childhood development that is closely linked to emotional well-being and success in school. We conducted a comprehensive review of recent intervention studies evaluating strategies to improve the peer interaction outcomes of students with intellectual disabilities and/or autism. The purpose of this review was to characterize the current knowledge base, to analyze key dimensions of recent studies, and to identify important areas for future research and synthesis. The 85 reviewed studies addressed 20 educational practices, which we categorized as (a) student-focused, (b) peer-focused, and/or (c) support-focused. Although the overall quality of these studies was high, considerable variation exists in the degree to which specific practices have been adequately evaluated with students across disability categories and grade levels. Additional research is needed to strengthen the depth of evidence for these practices across school levels, school settings, and disability categories.

Systematic Screening at the Middle School Level Score Reliability and Validity of the Student Risk Screening Scale

This article presents findings of two studies, one conducted with middle school students (n = 500) in a rural setting and a second conducted with middle school students ( n = 528) in an urban setting, of the reliability and validity of the Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS; Drummond, 1994). Results revealed high internal consistency, test—retest stability, and convergent validity with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). In addition, short-term predictive validity was established; namely, students with risk statuses of low (n = 422), moderate (n = 51), and high (n = 12) according to the SRSS could best be differentiated by behavioral variables (e.g., ODR, in-school suspensions). Although academic variables could differentiate between students with moderate or high risks and students without (low) risk, these variables did not differentiate between students in the moderate-risk group and students in the high-risk group as did the behavioral variables. Limitations and future research directions are discussed.