Erika Ortolan

Evolution and Function of the ADP Ribosyl Cyclase/CD38 Gene Family in Physiology and Pathology

The membrane proteins CD38 and CD157 belong to an evolutionarily conserved family of enzymes that play crucial roles in human physiology. Expressed in distinct patterns in most tissues, CD38 (and CD157) cleaves NAD(+) and NADP(+), generating cyclic ADP ribose (cADPR), NAADP, and ADPR. These reaction products are essential for the regulation of intracellular Ca(2+), the most ancient and universal cell signaling system. The entire family of enzymes controls complex processes, including egg fertilization, cell activation and proliferation, muscle contraction, hormone secretion, and immune responses. Over the course of evolution, the molecules have developed the ability to interact laterally and frontally with other surface proteins and have acquired receptor-like features. As detailed in this review, the loss of CD38 function is associated with impaired immune responses, metabolic disturbances, and behavioral modifications in mice. CD38 is a powerful disease marker for human leukemias and myelomas, is directly involved in the pathogenesis and outcome of human immunodeficiency virus infection and chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and controls insulin release and the development of diabetes. Here, the data concerning diseases are examined in view of potential clinical applications in diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy. The concluding remarks try to frame all of the currently available information within a unified working model that takes into account both the enzymatic and receptorial functions of the molecules.

Functional Role and Prognostic Significance of CD157 in Ovarian Carcinoma

BACKGROUND CD157, an ADP-ribosyl cyclase-related cell surface molecule, regulates leukocyte diapedesis during inflammation. Because CD157 is expressed in mesothelial cells and diapedesis resembles tumor cell migration, we investigated the role of CD157 in ovarian carcinoma. METHODS We assayed surgically obtained ovarian cancer and mesothelial cells and both native and engineered ovarian cancer cell lines for CD157 expression using flow cytometry and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and for adhesion to extracellular matrices, migration, and invasion using cell-based assays. We investigated invasion of human peritoneal mesothelial cells by serous ovarian cancer cells with a three-dimensional coculture model. Experiments were performed with or without CD157-blocking antibodies. CD157 expression in tissue sections from ovarian cancer patients (n = 88) was examined by immunohistochemistry, quantified by histological score (H score), and categorized as at or above or below the median value of 60, and compared with clinical parameters. Statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS CD157 was expressed by ovarian cancer cells and mesothelium, and it potentiated the adhesion, migration, and invasion of serous ovarian cancer cells through different extracellular matrices. CD157-transfected ovarian cancer cells migrated twice as much as CD157-negative control cells (P = .001). Blockage of CD157 inhibited mesothelial invasion by serous ovarian cancer cells in a three-dimensional model. CD157 was expressed in 82 (93%) of the 88 epithelial ovarian cancer tissue specimens. In serous ovarian cancer, patients with CD157 H scores of 60 or greater had statistically significantly shorter disease-free survival and overall survival than patients with lower CD157 H scores (CD157 H score > or =60 vs <60: median disease-free survival = 18 months, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 5.92 to 30.07 vs unreached, P = .005; CD157 H score > or =60 vs <60: median overall survival = 45 months, 95% CI = 21.21 to 68.79 vs unreached, P = .024). Multivariable Cox regression showed that CD157 is an independent prognostic factor for recurrence (hazard ratio of disease recurrence = 3.01, 95% CI = 1.35 to 6.70, P = .007) and survival (hazard ratio of survival = 3.44, 95% CI = 1.27 to 9.31, P = .015). CONCLUSIONS CD157 plays a pivotal role in the control of ovarian cancer cell migration and peritoneal invasion, and it may be clinically useful as a prognostic tool and therapeutic target.

The CD157-Integrin Partnership Controls Transendothelial Migration and Adhesion of Human Monocytes

CD157, a member of the CD38 gene family, is an NAD-metabolizing ectoenzyme and a signaling molecule whose role in polarization, migration, and diapedesis of human granulocytes has been documented; however, the molecular events underpinning this role remain to be elucidated. This study focused on the role exerted by CD157 in monocyte migration across the endothelial lining and adhesion to extracellular matrix proteins. The results demonstrated that anti-CD157 antibodies block monocyte transmigration and adhesion to fibronectin and fibrinogen but that CD157 cross-linking is sufficient to overcome the block, suggesting an active signaling role for the molecule. Consistent with this is the observation that CD157 is prevalently located within the detergent-resistant membrane microdomains to which, upon clustering, it promotes the recruitment of β1 and β2 integrin, which, in turn, leads to the formation of a multimolecular complex favoring signal transduction. This functional cross-talk with integrins allows CD157 to act as a receptor despite its intrinsic structural inability to do so on its own. Intracellular signals mediated by CD157 rely on the integrin/Src/FAK (focal adhesion kinase) pathway, resulting in increased activity of the MAPK/ERK1/2 and the PI3K/Akt downstream signaling pathways, which are crucial in the control of monocyte transendothelial migration. Collectively, these findings indicate that CD157 acts as a molecular organizer of signaling-competent membrane microdomains and that it forms part of a larger molecular machine ruled by integrins. The CD157-integrin partnership provides optimal adhesion and transmigration of human monocytes.

Generation of potent neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies against cytomegalovirus infection from immune B cells

BackgroundHuman monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) generated as a result of the immune response are likely to be the most effective therapeutic antibodies, particularly in the case of infectious diseases against which the immune response is protective.Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is an ubiquitous opportunistic virus that is the most serious pathogenic agent in transplant patients. The available therapeutic armamentarium (e.g. HCMV hyperimmune globulins or antivirals) is associated with severe side effects and the emergence of drug-resistant strains; therefore, neutralizing human mAb may be a decisive alternative in the prevention of primary and re-activated HCMV infections in these patients.ResultsThe purpose of this study was to generate neutralizing mAb against HCMV from the immunological repertoire of immune donors. To this aim, we designed an efficient technology relying on two discrete and sequential steps: first, human B-lymphocytes are stimulated with TLR9-agonists and IL-2; second, after both additives are removed, the cells are infected with EBV. Using this strategy we obtained 29 clones secreting IgG neutralizing the HCMV infectivity; four among these were further characterized. All of the mAbs neutralize the infection in different combinations of HCMV strains and target cells, with a potency ~20 fold higher than that of the HCMV hyperimmune globulins, currently used in transplant recipients. Recombinant human monoclonal IgG1 suitable as a prophylactic or therapeutic tool in clinical applications has been generated.ConclusionThe technology described has proven to be more reproducible, efficient and rapid than previously reported techniques, and can be adopted at low overall costs by any cell biology laboratory for the development of fully human mAbs for immunotherapeutic uses.

Human CD38 interferes with HIV-1 fusion through a sequence homologous to the V3 loop of the viral envelope glycoprotein gp120.

CD38 is a progression marker in HIV‐1 infection, it displays lateral association with CD4, and down‐modulates gp120/CD4 binding. The aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanism behind the interplay between CD4, CD38, and HIV‐1. We used mouse cell transfectants expressing human CD4 and either CD38 or other CD4‐associated molecules to show that CD38 specifically inhibits gp120/CD4 binding. Human cell transfectants expressing truncated forms of CD38 and bioinformatic analysis were used to map the anti‐HIV activity and show that it is concentrated in the membrane‐proximal region. This region displayed significant sequence‐similarity with the V3 loop of the HIV‐1 gp120 glycoprotein. In line with this similarity, synthetic soluble peptides derived from this region reproduced the anti‐HIV effects of full‐length CD38 and inhibited HIV‐1 and HIV‐2 primary isolates from different subtypes and with different coreceptor use. A multiple‐branched peptide construct presenting part of the sequence of the V3‐like region potently and selectively inhibited HIV‐1 replication in the nanomolar range. Conversely, a deletion in the V3‐like region abrogated the anti‐HIV‐1 activity of CD38 and its lateral association with CD4. These findings may provide new insights into the early events of HIV‐1 fusion and strategies to intervene.

Caveolin-1 expression is variably displayed in astroglial-derived tumors and absent in oligodendrogliomas: concrete premises for a new reliable diagnostic marker in gliomas.

Caveolins are basic constituents of flask-shaped cell membrane microdomains (caveolae), which are involved in many cell functions, including signalling, trafficking, and cellular growth control. The distribution of caveolae within the normal brain and in brain tumors is controversial. In the present study, we describe the expression of caveolin-1 (cav-1) in 64 brain tumors of different grade, of either astroglial or oligodendroglial origin. All studied astrocitomas of any grade (from II to IV) were cav-1 positive, displaying staining patterns and intensity specifically associated to the different tumor grades. In all glioblastomas and gliosarcomas, cav-1 staining was extremely intense, typically localized at the cell membrane and recognized a variable percentage of cells, including the majority of spindle cells and palisade-oriented perinecrotic cells. In anaplastic astrocytomas, a less intense membrane staining or a cytoplasmic dotlike immunoreactivity were present, the latter being almost the exclusive pattern observed in diffuse astrocitomas grade II. In contrast to astroglial tumors, the striking totality of grade II oligodendrogliomas and the large majority of grade III were lacking cav-1 expression. Interestingly, a cav-1 distribution overlapping the pattern described in tissues was observed also in primary cell cultures of human glioblastomas and astrocytomas, and also in one established glioblastoma cell line (U251 MG), analyzed by means of confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. In conclusion, among astroglial tumors cav-1 expression varies in distribution, pattern, and intensity specifically according to tumor types and grades. The association between tumor progression and a more structured membranous pattern of cav-1 expression could suggest the hypothesis of a neoplastic shift towards a mesenchymal phenotype, whose behavioral and biologic significance worth further studies. Finally, the lack of cav-1 immunoreactivity in oligodendrogliomas suggests its concrete application as a useful diagnostic marker.

Anti-CD38 autoantibodies: Characterisation in new-onset Type I diabetes and latent autoimmune diabetes of the adult (LADA) and comparison with other islet autoantibodies

Abstract Aims/hypothesis. Serum anti-CD38 autoantibodies (aAbs) have been reported in 17 to 19% of patients with long-standing Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus and Type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Whether these aAbs are also found in new-onset Type I diabetes and in Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults (LADA) is not known, as is their relationship with conventional islet aAbs. Methods. These issues were addressed by studying new-onset Type I and LADA diabetic cohorts with a recently developed anti-CD38 enzymatic immuno-assay. Results. Anti-CD38 aAb prevalence among new-onset Type I patients (3.8%) was lower than previously found in long-standing Type I diabetes (11.7%, as defined with the 97.5 percentile cutoff; p=0.01), suggesting a late appearance of these aAbs. Among LADA patients, 14.9% were anti-CD38+. Anti-CD38 were only associated with anti-GAD aAbs in new-onset Type I diabetes. Although the CD38 target molecule was expressed in human pancreatic islets, anti-CD38 aAbs did not contribute to the islet cell antibody (ICA) immunofluorescence reactivity. All the positive sera analysed for Ca2+ release were found to mobilise it. In agreement with these agonistic features, anti-CD38+ new-onset Type I patients showed higher fasting C-peptide values as compared to negative counterparts; the association was stronger when the analysis was limited to the agonistic anti-CD38+ sera. A similar trend was found among LADA patients. Conclusion/interpretation. Anti-CD38 aAbs are distinct markers of islet autoimmunity which are more prevalent in long-standing disease, as opposed to the other known islet aAbs. Their in vitro agonistic properties could be operating in vivo as well, as they identify sub-groups of patients with higher residual beta-cell function.

Characterization and phylogenetic epitope mapping of CD38 ADPR cyclase in the cynomolgus macaque

BackgroundThe CD38 transmembrane glycoprotein is an ADP-ribosyl cyclase that moonlights as a receptor in cells of the immune system. Both functions are independently implicated in numerous areas related to human health. This study originated from an inherent interest in studying CD38 in the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis), a species closely related to humans that also represents a cogent animal model for the biomedical analysis of CD38.ResultsA cDNA was isolated from cynomolgus macaque peripheral blood leukocytes and is predicted to encode a type II membrane protein of 301 amino acids with 92% identity to human CD38. Both RT-PCR-mediated cDNA cloning and genomic DNA PCR surveying were possible with heterologous human CD38 primers, demonstrating the striking conservation of CD38 in these primates. Transfection of the cDNA coincided with: (i) surface expression of cynomolgus macaque CD38 by immunofluorescence; (ii) detection of ~42 and 84 kDa proteins by Western blot and (iii) the appearance of ecto-enzymatic activity. Monoclonal antibodies were raised against the cynomolgus CD38 ectodomain and were either species-specific or cross-reactive with human CD38, in which case they were directed against a common disulfide-requiring conformational epitope that was mapped to the C-terminal disulfide loop.ConclusionThis multi-faceted characterization of CD38 from cynomolgus macaque demonstrates its high genetic and biochemical similarities with human CD38 while the immunological comparison adds new insights into the dominant epitopes of the primate CD38 ectodomain. These results open new prospects for the biomedical and pharmacological investigations of this receptor-enzyme.

Overexpression of CD157 contributes to epithelial ovarian cancer progression by promoting mesenchymal differentiation.

Epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC) is an aggressive tumor often diagnosed at an advanced stage, when there is little or no prospect of cure. Despite advances in surgical and chemotherapeutic strategies, only marginal improvements in patient outcome have been obtained. Hence, unraveling the biological mechanisms underpinning EOC progression is critical for improving patients’ survival. Recently, we reported that CD157 (an ectoenzyme regulating leukocyte diapedesis) is expressed in EOC and that high expression of the molecule is negatively correlated with the disease outcome in patients. Here, we demonstrate that forced overexpression of CD157 in OVCAR-3, TOV-21G, A2780 and OV-90 ovarian cancer cell lines promotes morphological and phenotypic changes characterized by disruption of intercellular junctions, downregulation of epithelial markers and upregulation of mesenchymal ones. These changes in cell shape and phenotype bring to reduced sensitivity to anoikis, increased anchorage-independent growth, cell motility and mesothelial invasion. Conversely, knockdown of CD157 in OV-90 and OC314 cells reverts the mesenchymal phenotype and reduces the cells’ migratory potential. Transcriptome profiling analysis highlighted 378 significantly differentially expressed genes, representing the signature of CD157-overexpressing OVCAR-3 and OV-90 cells. The modulation of selected genes translates into alteration of protein expression that give cells a highly malignant phenotype. The overall picture deduced from the analysis of the modulated transcripts is that high expression of CD157 strengthens a number of biological processes favoring tumor progression (including development and cell motility), and weakens several biological processes hindering tumor progression (such as apoptosis, cell death and response to stress). Together, these findings implicate CD157 in the progression of EOC to metastatic disease and suggest that CD157 may represent a valuable therapeutic target.

Binding of CD157 Protein to Fibronectin Regulates Cell Adhesion and Spreading

Background: Surface CD157 modulates leukocyte and ovarian cancer cell adhesion and migration through the interaction with an unknown ligand. Results: CD157 binds heparin-binding domains of numerous extracellular matrix proteins with high affinity. Conclusion: The interaction of CD157 with extracellular matrix proteins is instrumental in the regulation of cell adhesion. Significance: These findings provide valuable insights into the biological mechanism responsible for the nonenzymatic functions of CD157. CD157/BST-1 behaves both as an ectoenzyme and signaling receptor and is an important regulator of leukocyte trafficking and ovarian cancer progression. However, the molecular interactions underpinning the role of CD157 in these processes remain obscure. The biological functions of CD157 and its partnership with members of the integrin family prompted us to assume the existence of a direct interaction between CD157 and an unknown component of the extracellular matrix. Using solid-phase binding assays and surface plasmon resonance analysis, we demonstrated that CD157 binds fibronectin with high affinity within its heparin-binding domains 1 and 2. Furthermore, we found that CD157 binds to other extracellular matrix proteins containing heparin-binding domains. Finally, we proved that the CD157-fibronectin interaction occurs with living cells, where it elicits CD157-mediated cell responses. Indeed, knockdown of CD157 in Met-5A mesothelial cells changed their morphology and cytoskeleton organization and attenuated the activation of intracellular signaling pathways triggered by fibronectin. This led to impaired cell spreading and adhesion to selected extracellular matrix proteins. Collectively, these findings indicate a central role of CD157 in cell-extracellular matrix interactions and make CD157 an attractive therapeutic target in inflammation and cancer.