Erin E. Hardin

Factor Structure of the Self-Construal Scale Revisited Implications for the Multidimensionality of Self-Construal

The Self-Construal Scale (SCS) is an important measure of self-construal. However, new data are needed on the structure of the SCS using more appropriate statistical techniques and investigating the existence of multiple (i.e., more than two) factors. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of data from two groups of European American and Asian/Asian American college students reveal six factors underlying items on the SCS that seem to represent four specific aspects of Independence and two specific aspects of Interdependence. Results also provide initial support for the relative usefulness of these new factors in exploring between-groups differences. Implications for the conceptualization of self-construal and future research are discussed.

Optimism and pessimism as mediators of the relations between self-discrepancies and distress among Asian and European Americans

The authors examined the role of undesired self-discrepancies in predicting emotional distress among Asian and European Americans, whether undesired self-discrepancies are stronger predictors of distress for Asian than for European Americans, and whether optimism and pessimism mediate the relations between ideal, ought, and undesired self-discrepancies and emotional distress. Self-identified Asian/ Asian American (n = 140) and European American (n = 189) college students completed measures of self-discrepancies, optimism/pessimism, social anxiety, and depressive symptoms. Results show that for both Asian Americans and European Americans, greater similarity to the undesired self is equally predictive of symptoms of depression, whereas distance from the undesired self is more predictive of social anxiety for Asian Americans than for European Americans. Furthermore, pessimism fully mediates the relations between undesired self-discrepancies and depressive symptoms for both Asian Americans and European Americans, although pessimism was a stronger predictor of depression for European Americans than for Asians/Asian Americans.

Opposite Ends of the Same Stick? Multi-Method Test of the Dimensionality of Individualism and Collectivism

The construct of individualism–collectivism (IND-COL) has become the definitive standard in cross-cultural psychology, management, and related fields. It is also among the most controversial, in particular, with regard to the ambiguity of its dimensionality: Some view IND and COL as the opposites of a single continuum, whereas others argue that the two are independent constructs. We explored the issue through seven different tests using original individual-level data from 50 studies and meta-analytic data from 149 empirical publications yielding a total of 295 sample-level observations that were collected using six established instruments for assessing IND and COL as separate constructs. Results indicated that the dimensionality of IND-COL may depend on (a) the specific instrument used to collect the data, (b) the sample characteristics and the cultural region from which the data were collected, and (c) the level of analysis. We also review inconsistencies, deficiencies, and challenges of conceptualizing IND-COL and provide guidelines for developing and selecting instruments for measuring the construct, and for reporting and meta-analyzing results from this line of research.

The Integrated Self-Discrepancy Index: A Reliable and Valid Measure of Self-Discrepancies

In this article, we present the Integrated Self-Discrepancy Index (ISDI), a new method for measuring self-discrepancies (Higgins, 1987) that integrates idiographic and nomothetic methods to address important theoretical and methodological concerns in existing measures. In Study 1, 284 undergraduate participants completed the ISDI to measure ideal-own and ought-own self-discrepancies along with measures of dejection, agitation, cheerfulness, and quiescence. In Study 2, we used the ISDI to measure ideal and ought self-discrepancies from both own and other standpoints; 169 undergraduate participants completed measures of depressive symptoms and social anxiety approximately 1 week later. Data from both studies fully support the fundamental predictions of self-discrepancy theory: Ought self-discrepancies were uniquely related to agitation but not dejection, whereas ideal self-discrepancies were uniquely related to dejection but not agitation. In addition, comparisons to previously published data demonstrate that correlations between the ideal and ought self-discrepancies are significantly lower using the ISDI than using other measures of self-discrepancies, suggesting that the ISDI is better able to measure ideal and ought selves as distinct constructs. This measure may provide researchers with a simpler and more valid method to measure self-discrepancies, contributing to our understanding of the importance of self-discrepancies in many applied literatures.

Individualism-Collectivism Links to Occupational Plans and Work Values

Individualism-collectivism (IC) constitutes a cultural variable thought to influence a wide variety of variables including career planning and decision making. To examine this possibility, college students (216 women, 106 men, 64% racial-ethnic minorities) responded to measures of IC, occupational plans, and work values. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) results indicated significant main effects for gender and race. Men, more so than women, endorsed vertical individualism (VI)—a cultural pattern characterized by independence and dominance—and intrinsic work values. African Americans expressed more fit of their occupational plans with personal goals and endorsed extrinsic work values more than did European Americans. A hypothesized inverse relationship between collectivism and consistency of occupational plans with personal goals was not supported. Hypothesized positive relationships between collectivism and work values stressing relationship and interdependence were supported, whereas expected inverse relationships between collectivism and work values emphasizing independence and personal gain were not supported. Findings are discussed in terms of acculturation issues, career assessment implications, and future research directions.

Self-discrepancy and distress: The role of personal growth initiative.

Higher levels of personal growth initiative (PGI; C. Robitschek, 1998) are associated with lower negative and higher positive affect (e.g., C. Robitschek & S. Kashubeck, 1999; C. Robitschek & C. L. M. Keyes, 2004). Two hypotheses that have been suggested for such findings are that (a) PGI moderates the relation between problems and affect and (b) successful resolution of potential problems mediates the relation between PGI and affect (C. Robitschek & S. Kashubeck, 1999). The current research tested these two hypotheses, using self-discrepancies (E. T. Higgins, 1987) as problems or sources of distress. Using a sequential design and a sample of predominantly European American college students (N = 134), the authors found that PGI was associated with lower social anxiety and negative affect, higher positive affect, and lower self-discrepancies. No support for the first (moderation) hypothesis was found. However, there was partial support for the second (mediational) hypothesis. The results suggest that those higher in PGI experience less social anxiety in part by maintaining lower self-discrepancies.

A Cultural Formulation Approach to Career Assessment and Career Counseling with Asian American Clients.

Using the cultural formulations approach to career assessment and career counseling, the current article applies it specifically to Asian American clients. The approach is illustrated by using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fourth edition (DSM-IV) Outline for Cultural Formulations that consists of the following five dimensions, which are modified for career counseling: (a) cultural identity of the individual, (b) cultural conceptions of career problems, (c) cultural contexts and psychosocial environment, (d) cultural dynamics of the therapeutic relationship, and (e) overall cultural assessment. The article concludes with a case study of an Asian American client to serve as an illustration of this approach.

Attitudes Toward Hiring Offenders The Roles of Criminal History, Job Qualifications, and Race

Occupational functioning is an important factor in the success of offenders reentering society. Yet few studies have empirically examined the factors influencing job obtainment of offenders. This study endeavors to begin to fill this gap by examining attitudes in hiring applicants charged with a crime. To accomplish this goal, 275 college students read a job description for a cashier position and then read 1 of 12 descriptions of an applicant varied by criminal history, qualifications, and race. Participants rate the applicants across dimensions relevant to hiring decisions. Results indicate that applicants with drug possession charges and low qualifications were less likely to be referred for hire. Severity of charges influences employability. Among applicants with a misdemeanor, qualifications increase employability, but qualifications have no influence for applicants with a felony. Implications of these findings for policy and vocational rehabilitation programming are discussed.

The cultural lens approach to evaluating cultural validity of psychological theory.

In this article, we introduce the cultural lens approach (CLA), a novel approach to evaluating the extent to which a psychological theory applies across cultural groups. The CLA requires scholars to apply their accumulated knowledge about cultural influences and differences (e.g., independent and interdependent self-construals; Markus & Kitayama, 1991) to the ways in which theoretical propositions are interpreted and operationalized. First we highlight three limitations in existing approaches to cultural validity and the ways in which the CLA addresses these limitations. Next, we articulate the five steps involved in the CLA and apply it to three different theories from social, vocational, and positive psychology to demonstrate its broad utility. In all cases, we highlight how applying the CLA can generate multiple novel testable hypotheses to stimulate future research and to advance knowledge that is culturally sensitive.

Convergent Evidence for the Multidimensionality of Self-Construal

Two studies test the multidimensional structure underlying the Self-Construal Scale. Study 1 cross-validated a multidimensional structure in new samples of Latino or Latina (n= 350), African American (n= 110), and European American (n= 350) college students, supporting the generalizability of the multidimensional structure. Study 2 explored the utility of the six dimensions of self-construal in samples of Asian (n= 59), Asian American (n= 89), and European American (n= 192) college students. Specific dimensions of self-construal accounted for more variance in social anxiety than the broader constructs of independence and interdependence did for the Asian Americans and European Americans, supporting the utility of measuring multidimensional self-construal in at least some groups. Implications for the measurement of multidimensional self-construal are discussed.