Erk Reimnitz

Sediments in Arctic sea ice: Implications for entrainment, transport and release

Despite the Arctic sea ice covers recognized sensitivity to environmental change, the role of sediment inclusions in lowering ice albedo and affecting ice ablation is poorly understood. Sea ice sediment inclusions were studied in the central Arctic Ocean during the Arctic 91 expedition and in the Laptev Sea (East Siberian Arctic Region Expedition 1992). Results from these investigations are here combined with previous studies performed in major areas of ice ablation and the southern central Arctic Ocean. This study documents the regional distribution and composition of particle-laden ice, investigates and evaluates processes by which sediment is incorporated into the ice cover, and identifies transport paths and probable depositional centers for the released sediment. n nIn April 1992, sea ice in the Laptev Sea was relatively clean. The sediment occasionally observed was distributed diffusely over the entire ice column, forming turbid ice. Observations indicate that frazil and anchor ice formation occurring in a large coastal polynya provide a main mechanism for sediment entrainment. In the central Arctic Ocean sediments are concentrated in layers within or at the surface of ice floes due to melting and refreezing processes. The surface sediment accumulation in central Arctic multi-year sea ice exceeds by far the amounts observed in first-year ice from the Laptev Sea in April 1992. n nSea ice sediments are generally fine grained, although coarse sediments and stones up to 5 cm in diameter are observed. Component analysis indicates that quartz and clay minerals are the main terrigenous sediment particles. The biogenous components, namely shells of pelecypods and benthic foraminiferal tests, point to a shallow, benthic, marine source area. Apparently, sediment inclusions were resuspended from shelf areas before and incorporated into the sea ice by suspension freezing. n nClay mineralogy of ice-rafted sediments provides information on potential source areas. A smectite maximum in sea ice sediment samples repeatedly occurred between 81°N and 83°N along the Arctic 91 transect, indicating a rather stable and narrow smectite rich ice drift stream of the Transpolar Drift. The smectite concentrations are comparable to those found in both Laptev Sea shelf sediments and anchor ice sediments, pointing to this sea as a potential source area for sea ice sediments. n nIn the central Arctic Ocean sea ice clay mineralogy is significantly different from deep-sea clay mineral distribution patterns. The contribution of sea ice sediments to the deep sea is apparently diluted by sedimentary material provided by other transport mechanisms.

Sea-ice processes in the Laptev Sea and their importance for sediment export

Based on remote-sensing data and an expedition during August-September 1993, the importance of the Laptev Sea as a source area for sediment-laden sea ice was studied. Ice-core analysis demonstrated the importance of dynamic ice-growth mechanisms as compared to the multi-year cover of the Arctic Basin. Ice-rafted sediment (IRS) was mostly associated with congealed frazil ice, although evidence for other entrainment mechanisms (anchor ice, entrainment into freshwater ice) was also found. Concentrations of suspended particulate matter (SPM) in patches of dirty ice averaged at 156 g m(-3) (standard deviation sigma = 140 g m(-3)), with a background concentration of 5 g m(-3). The potential for sediment entrainment over the broad, shallow Laptev Sea shelf during fall freeze-up was studied through analysis of remote-sensing data and weather-station records for the period 1979-1994. Freeze-up commences on 26 September (sigma = 7 d) and is completed after 19 days (sigma = 6 d). Meteorological conditions as well as ice extent prior to and during freeze-up vary considerably, the open-water area ranging between 107 x 10(3) and 447 x 10(3) km(2). Ice motion and transport of IRS were derived from satellite imagery and drifting buoys for the period during and after the expedition (mean ice velocities of 0.04 and 0.05 m s(-1), respectively). With a best-estimate sediment load of 16 t km(-2) (ranging between 9 and 46 t km(-2)), sediment export from the eastern Laptev Sea amounts to 4 x 10(6) t yr(-1), with extremes of 2 x 10(6) and 11 x 10(6) t yr(-1). Implications for the sediment budget of the Laptev shelf, in particular with respect to riverine input of SPM, which may be of the same order of magnitude, are discussed.

The Influence of Cryogenic Processes on the Erosional Arctic Shoreface

Abstract Coastal dynamics and shoreface relief in ice-free seas are a function of hydrodynamic interactions between the sea and bottom sediments. In the Arctic, additional, cryogenic factors such as permafrost and the action of sea ice influence coastal processes. The goal of our paper is to assess this influence, mainly on the profile shape. Mathematical analyses of the shape of 63 shoreface profiles from the Laptev, Beaufort, and Chukchi Seas were carried out. The shapes of Arctic shoreface profiles and those of ice-free seas are compared. We found that large ice and silt content in perennially frozen sediments composing Arctic coasts favor their erosion. Sea ice plays an important role in sediment transport on the shoreface and correspondingly changes shoreface relief significantly. Some effects of ice intensify coastal erosion considerably, but others play a protective role. The overall influence of cryogenic processes on Arctic coasts composed of loose sediments is seen in that the average rate of coastal retreat is larger than in the temperate environments, even though Arctic coasts are protected by a continuous ice cover most of the year. The shape of the shoreface profile in the Arctic does not differ from that in ice-free seas, and is satisfactorily described by the Bruun/Dean equilibrium profile equation. The explanation of this fact is that all changes of the profile shape, caused by cryogenic processes, are short lived and quickly eliminated by wave action.

Surf-Beat Origin for Pulsating Bottom Currents in the Rio Balsas Submarine Canyon, Mexico

A previously unreported process was observed at the head of a tributary to the Rio Balsas submarine canyon system in Mexico. During a period of large surf, river discharge deflected a pulsating longshore current [peaking at over 7 km/hr (2 m/sec)] seaward over the tributary heading in the surf zone. This pulsating flow occasionally entered the river mouth, causing rhythmic fluctuations with amplitudes of at least 30 cm and a period of about 3 minutes within the mouth, as recorded by a partially filtered tide gage. In diving to the bottom of the tributary at a depth of 18 m, we encountered current pulses with estimated velocities of 4 km/hr (more than 1 m/sec) transporting large amounts of suspended sand down an axial slope of 26°. This bottom flow was at least 3 m thick, and was characterized by pulses separated by quiet periods in phase with the surface rip current. The upper 20 cm of the canyon fill during this time consisted of sand smoothly laminated parallel to the bottom, indicating net deposition on the steeply sloping floor. Estimated water budget suggested that the entire water column below the rip current at 18 m was not flowing seaward during the pulses. The bottom flow landward of the dive site probably separated from the surface flow and was propagated downslope as a turbidity current. Its magnitude was sufficient t o erode the canyon walls. These observations substantiate that rip currents play a role in the formation of some submarine canyons. Surf-beat induced rhythmic flushing of the river mouth, however, did not cause density currents in the main canyon head. The need for future canyon studies under extreme conditions is pointed out.

Rapid changes in the head of the Rio Balsas Submarine Canyon system, Mexico

Abstract The investigation of a river delta and the heads of several nearby submarine canyons in western Mexico produced evidence for rapid changes in the configuration and depth of the nearshore portions of canyon tributaries. General scarcity of data on the rates of submarine canyon formation and the relationship to river discharge should make these results of special interest. The Rio Balsas, one of Mexicos largest rivers, empties into the ocean near the heads of a large submarine canyon that terminates in the Middle America Trench. One of the distributaries of the Rio Balsas presently is discharging at the head of Canon de la Necesidad, which is being eroded actively. Two inactive canyons are related to former discharge channels of the river. Their heads lie at some distance from shore and are being filled with sediment. The Canon de Petacalco, not now receiving sediment directly from a Rio Balsas distributary, has remained active because the shoreline has not retreated far. Until about 100 years ago its head was being filled with fine-grained and highly organic sediments from a nearby rivermouth, while the coarse portion of the sediment supply joined the canyon via a tributary farther seaward. Since then the river has shifted away from this canyon, and the horizontally stratified sediments in the canyon head have been incised as much as 20–30 m, as evidenced by three 14C dates of organic material exposed in the steep to overhanging canyon walls. The changes in the shallow portion of the Rio Balsas submarine canyons seem to be related to changes in river discharge pattern, either directly or indirectly. A shifting point source of sediment supply either activates a pre-existing, partly filled canyon, or erodes a new one near the new river mouth, whereas the canyon at the abandoned river mouth is deactivated following retreat of the shoreline. The heads of the different tributaries form a dendritic pattern in Holocene unconsolidated sediment. Subaerial processes are not involved in the formation of these submarine canyons. Thus, a dendritic pattern of submarine canyons is not necessarily indicative of subaerial erosion.

The sea sled — a device for measuring bottom profiles in the surf zone

Abstract The Sea Sled is a simple, easily constructed device for obtaining relatively accurate and quick bottom profiles in the surf zone. The onshore — offshore motion associated with the passage of waves propels the sled on both its seaward traverse and the shoreward return. The device has been successfully used along the California coast.