Ernesto Macaro

Analysing Student Teachers’ Codeswitching in Foreign Language Classrooms: Theories and Decision Making

This article draws on a case study of 6 student teachers in secondary schools and their codeswitching between the first language (L1) and the second language (L2) over the course of 14 foreign language (FL) lessons, where French was the L2 and English was the L1 of the learners. It describes how the student teachers had been exposed to theoretical positions and empirical studies on this issue during their 36-week training programme. It analyses the quantity of L1 used by these student teachers as well as the reflections and beliefs of 2 of the student teachers on the codeswitching process. The findings reveal comparatively low levels of L1 use by the student teachers and little effect of the quantity of student teacher L1 use on the quantity of L1 or L2 use by the learners. They also reveal very little explicit reference by the student teachers to the research and professional literature they had read, yet their decision making did not necessarily stem from their personal beliefs. Some aspects of codeswitching appear to be a source of conflict for the student teachers while others do not. Implications for teaching are drawn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Target language, collaborative learning and autonomy

A National Curriculum or a framework for methodology interpretations of communicative language teaching the teacher as input the pupil as learner collaborative learning learner autonomy is a national methodology desirable.

Does intensive explicit grammar instruction make all the difference

This paper investigates the effect of explicit grammar instruction on grammatical knowledge and writing proficiency in first-year students of French at a UK university. Previous research suggests that explicit grammar instruction results in gains in explicit knowledge and its application in specific grammar-related tasks, but there is less evidence that it results in gains in production tasks. A cohort of 12 students received a course in French grammar immediately prior to their university studies in order to determine whether a short but intensive burst of explicit instruction, a pedagogical approach hitherto unexamined in the literature, was sufficiently powerful to bring about an improvement in their grammatical knowledge and performance in production tasks. Participants were tested at three points over five months, and the results were compared with a group which did not receive the intervention. Our results support previous findings that explicit instruction leads to gains in some aspects of grammar tests but not gains in accuracy in either translation or free composition. Reasons for these findings are discussed in relation to theories of language development and the limitations of working memory.

Comparing the Effect of Teacher Codeswitching with English-Only Explanations on the Vocabulary Acquisition of Chinese University Students: A Lexical Focus-on-Form Study.

This study investigated the effect of teacher codeswitching on second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition during listening comprehension activities in a lexical Focus-on-Form context. To date there has been research on teacher beliefs about first language (L1) use, its functions and its distribution in the interaction, but little on its effect on aspects of learning. Previous research on intentional vocabulary teaching has shown it to be effective, but whether the lexical information provided to learners is more effective in L1 or L2 has been under-researched and, moreover, has only been investigated in a reading comprehension context. Eighty first-year students of English as an L2, in a Chinese university, were stratified by proficiency and randomly allocated to a codeswitching condition or to an English-only condition, and their performance in vocabulary tests compared to a control group of 37 students that did not receive any lexical Focus-on-Form treatment. Results confirm previous studies that lexical Focus-on-Form leads to better vocabulary learning than mere incidental exposure. Results also provide initial evidence that teacher codeswitching may be superior to the teacher providing L2-only information. Contrary to some theories of the mental lexicon, proficiency level did not clearly favour one condition against the other.

The medium of instruction and classroom interaction: evidence from Hong Kong secondary schools

Teacher–student interaction in classrooms is perceived to be crucial for learning. Previous research has compared the interaction in classrooms where a second language is used as the medium of instruction (MoI) with those where the mother tongue is used. This has been done mainly via qualitative impressions. The current study adopted a mixed method design to examine objectively and comprehensively the classroom interaction in a sample of Hong Kong secondary schools that used Chinese as the MoI from Grade 7 to 9, but then switched to English from Grade 10 onwards (i.e. MoI-switching schools). By doing so, this study aimed to identify the possible effect of a change in the MoI on classroom interaction and its potential for learning. Sixty lessons were observed in Grade 9 and 10 in three MoI-switching schools and compared to two schools where English was used throughout all the grades. The results show that, when the MoI changed from students’ first to second language, lessons tended to become more teacher-centred and there were fewer opportunities for negotiation of meaning and scaffolding. These findings have significant implications for the relationship between the MoI and classroom interaction and provide important insights into pedagogy and teacher development.

A systematic review of CALL in English as a second language : Focus on primary and secondary education

After explaining why consideration of the use of technology in second language (L2) teaching in the primary and secondary sectors is necessary, this systematic review presents a keyword map of 117 papers that have researched technology in L2 learning since 1990. It reveals that research effort has increased, in these educational phases, in line with technological developments and that there have been important differences in the adoption of applications between the primary and secondary sectors. We then provide an in-depth review of 47 post-2000 studies which investigate the efficacy of technology in the teaching of L2 English. We ask what technology has been used in the new century and why, what evidence there is that technology facilitates language learning, and what other insights can be drawn from the research in this field. The evidence that technology has a direct beneficial impact on linguistic outcomes is slight and inconclusive, but it may impact indirectly and positively by changing learner attitudes and learning behaviours and may promote collaboration. However, the research surveyed does not differentiate these positive impacts by group differences (e.g. gender). On the whole the research reviewed lacked the quality that would reassure practitioners and policy-makers that technological investment is warranted. We argue that future research needs to provide a tighter link between technological applications, Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory, and learning outcomes.

The decline in language learning in England: getting the facts right and getting real

A number of authors and researchers, in the pages of this journal, have predicted or documented the decline in modern languages (MFL) education in England over the past five or six years (see Pachler 2002; Broady 2006). The decline that many are referring to is specifically the falling numbers of students being entered for the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE), and this decline appears to be attributed to the government’s decision to make the subject optional at Key Stage 4 (KS4). Coleman et al. (2007, 349) argue that ‘making the subject optional damaged the perceived status of languages, and the introduction of choice has led to a dramatic decline in the take-up of languages post-14’. Evans (2007) expresses his disappointment at the Languages review (Dearing and King 2007) not opting for the one measure that would immediately reverse the situation, namely, bringing back compulsory MFL learning at KS4. Although there has also been concern at the decline in motivation to study an MFL at A level, and consequently a reduction in degree level applications (Fisher 2001; Graham 2002; Watts 2004), the two sets of figures (GCSE and A level) have never, to my knowledge, been discussed at length together and set in a historical context. It is by considering them together that we may get a better picture of decline post-14. In this paper, I shall argue that the facts demonstrate that the optional nature of MFLs does not necessarily lead to their decline and that, in fact, the very opposite may be true. I will also put forward a suggestion that the introduction in 1992 of an almost impossible (and possibly misconceived) methodology (exclusive use of the target language), coupled with a policy of ‘Languages for All’, may have indeed checked the growing popularity of language learning in England and sown the seeds of the decline. I will then discuss what we might mean by a ‘national MFL capacity’ in the light of European directives and global changes. Finally, I will propose two very radical solutions to the problem, solutions which, whilst not unrealistic, would nevertheless need enormous government backing in order to be driven through our very rigid 11–18 curriculum.

Developing language teachers through a co-researcher model

This article reports on a small-scale study tracking the development of three newly qualified language teachers. There were two phases to the study. During the course of their first year in post the three teachers were observed and interviewed by a researcher in order to ascertain how their teaching had been changing or developing since finishing their training and what factors were influencing that change or development. As a result of this research, two of the teachers agreed to continue with the project into a second year during which it was agreed to focus on a specific aspect of classroom practice, their oral interaction with the students. Thus, in the second year, three lessons per teacher were video-recorded, transcribed and analysed by the researchers, and the teachers were asked to react to the data on their lessons. It is suggested that this study, with the beginning teacher as “co-researcher”, may act as a model for future professional development.

Developing reading achievement in primary learners of French: inferencing strategies versus exposure to ‘graded readers’

All primary school children in England are to be entitled to learn a foreign language by 2010, based on the belief that an early start is beneficial for language learning in the long run. However, the evidence of the benefits of an early start is inconclusive, and it is also unclear what type of curriculum and pedagogy would be most appropriate for these young-beginner learners. This pilot study of Year 6 (ages 10–11) children learning French aimed to provide some initial evidence that a literacy-based component has a place in a primary language learning curriculum. A group of learners were given an intervention comprising some special materials designed to develop their ‘inferencing strategies’ when confronted with new or unfamiliar French words in short texts. This group was compared with a group of learners who were simply exposed to a diet of ‘graded French readers’ without any strategy instruction. Both groups were, in turn, compared with a control group which continued with their normal learning experience. Both the inferencing strategies group and the graded readers group made significant advances in their reading comprehension, but, further, the inferencing strategies group outperformed the graded readers group in inferencing ability and in the learning of function words. The findings suggest a need to pursue this area of enquiry further with a larger and more controlled study.

A Systematic Review of English Medium Instruction in Higher Education.

After outlining why a systematic review of research in English medium instruction (EMI) in higher education (HE) is urgently required, we briefly situate the rapidly growing EMI phenomenon in the broader field of research in which content and language have been considered and compare HE research outputs with those from other phases of education. An in-depth review of 83 studies in HE documents the growth of EMI in different geographical areas. We describe studies which have investigated university teachers’ beliefs and those of students before attempting to synthesise the evidence on whether teaching academic subjects through the medium of English as a second language (L2) is of benefit to developing English proficiency without a detrimental effect on content learning. We conclude that key stakeholders have serious concerns regarding the introduction and implementation of EMI despite sometimes recognising its inevitability. We also conclude that the research evidence to date is insufficient to assert that EMI benefits language learning nor that it is clearly detrimental to content learning. There are also insufficient studies demonstrating, through the classroom discourse, the kind of practice which may lead to beneficial outcomes. This insufficiency, we argue, is partly due to research methodology problems both at the micro and macro level.