Ervin Staub

The roots of evil : the origins of genocide and other group violence

Pt. 1. Psychological and cultural bases of genocide and other forms of group violence: An introduction ; The origins of genocide and mass killing : core concepts ; The psychology of hard times : the effects of difficult life conditions ; Cultural and individual characteristics ; The psychology of perpetrators : individuals and groups ; Steps along a continuum of destruction : perpetrators and bystanders -- pt. 2. The Nazi Holocaust: Hitler comes to power ; Preconditions for the Holocaust in German culture ; Nazi rule and steps along the continuum of destruction ; The SS and the psychology of perpetrators ; The behavior and psychology of bystanders and victims -- pt. .3 Other genocides and mass killings: The Turkish genocide of the Armenians ; Cambodia : genocide to create a better world ; The disappearances : mass killing in Argentina ; Summary and conclusions : the societal and psychological origins of genocide and other atrocities -- pt. 4. Further extensions : the roots of war and the creation of caring and nonaggressive persons and societies: The cultural and psychological origins of war ; The nature of groups : security, power, justice, and positive connection ; The creation and evolution of caring, connection, and nonaggression.

On the Varieties of National Attachment: Blind Versus Constructive Patriotism

Two studies explored a theoretical distinction between “blind” and “constructive” patriotism. Blind patriotism is defined as an attachment to country characterized by unquestioning positive evaluation, staunch allegiance, and intolerance of criticism. Constructive patriotism is defined as an attachment to country characterized by support for questioning and criticism of current group practices that are intended to result in positive change. Items designed to investigate these dimensions of national attachment were administered to two groups of undergraduates in separate surveys. Measures of the two constructs derived from factor analysis of the responses proved to be reliable and valid. Blind patriotism was positively associated with political disengagement, nationalism, perceptions of foreign threat, perceived importance of symbolic behaviors, and selective exposure to pro-U.S. information. In contrast, constructive patriotism was positively associated with multiple indicators of political involvement, including political efficacy, interest, knowledge, and behavior. The implications of this distinction for theory and research on patriotism are discussed.

Helping a Distressed Person: Social, Personality, and Stimulus Determinants1

Publisher Summary This chapter describes a series of experiments that show the multiplicity of influences promoting and/or inhibiting the giving of aid to those in physical distress. Physical distress represents one of the most basic and important conditions requiring assistance; this is the reason for selecting helping behavior in response to physical distress as the focus of study. In a series of experiments, Berkowitz and his associates explored the conditions under which a person was willing to expend effort to help another person gain prestige and material reward. They found that, the greater the dependence of one person on another, the more likely it is that the latter will work hard in order to help. Berkowitz and Daniels suggested that a norm of social responsibility, which prescribes that people should help others who are dependent on them, guides this helping behavior. The chapter presents a general theoretical discussion of what motivates or restrains helping behavior, what are some reasons for helping or not doing so. Several groups of experiments have been presented, each introduced by a more detailed discussion of certain relevant determinants of helping.

Genocide and Mass Killing: Origins, Prevention, Healing and Reconciliation

This article focuses on intense collective violence, especially mass killing and genocide. It briefly presents a conception of their origins, with new elements in the conception and comparisons with other approaches. Various aspects of genocide and mass killing are considered, including their starting points (such as difficult life conditions and group conflict), cultural characteristics, psychological and social processes (such as destructive ideologies), the evolution of increasing violence and its effect on perpetrators and bystanders, and the roles of leaders and of internal and external bystanders. Actions that might be taken by the community of nations and other actors to halt or prevent violence are described. In considering prevention there is a focus on processes of healing within previously victimized groups and reconciliation between hostile groups. A project on healing, forgiveness, and reconciliation in Rwanda is briefly described.

Notes on Cultures of Violence, Cultures of Caring and Peace, and the Fulfillment of Basic Human Needs

Some conditions in the lives of children, adults, and groups can be construed as fulfilling universal human psychological needs. The constructive fulfillment of these basic needs promotes caring and positive, helpful relations; their frustration creates an inclination toward hostility and aggression. The article describes diverse influences that can lead to violence between individuals, groups, and societies, as well as ways to halt and prevent genocide, mass killing, and other intergroup violence, including terrorism, in part by fostering culture changes that promote harmony and peace. Ideally such culture change would involve healing from past wounds, the creation of positive (rather than destructive) ideologies, supportive communities, reconciliation and the creation of a shared collective memory, education that promotes peace, and the development of inclusive caring in children. The article also refers to work in Rwanda that aims to foster healing and reconciliation, in part by helping people understand the roots of violence and its implication for prevention. Societies and families that help to fulfill basic needs promote goodness as well as optimal human functioning—the continued growth and development of individuals.

The psychology of bystanders, perpetrators, and heroic helpers☆

Abstract This article examines the psychological and cultural-societal origins of genocide and mass killing, with a focus on the Holocaust. Difficult conditions of life in a society, like severe economic problems or political conflict and violence, give rise to powerful needs—for security, protection of the psychological self, comprehension, connection, and hope. Certain cultural-societal characteristics create a predisposition for group violence. They include devaluation of a subgroup, strong respect for authority, a monolithic culture, certain societal self-concepts, and a history of aggression. They intensify needs and make it probable that the group deals with them by scapegoating, usually a subgroup of society “preselecte” by the history of cultural devaluation, by adopting nationalistic and/or “better world” ideologies that identify the victims as the enemy, and by joining movements. As perpetrators begin to harm victims, they change. Their evolution, with steps along a continuum of destruction, ends in genocide or mass killing. Both internal bystanders, members of the society, and external ones including other nations, usually remain passive, which encourages perpetrators. Internal bystanders share with perpetrators a “societal tilt” and psychological processes like just world thinking, moral equilibration, and the exclusion of victims from the moral realm. Passivity changes bystanders and some evolve into perpetrators. People who endanger themselves to help victims are guided by moral values and empathy and in contrast to perpetrators (and bystanders) are “inclusive.” They also change as a result of their own actions, and even if at first motivated by ties to specific victims, many develop intense commitment to helping.

Inclusive Altruism Born of Suffering: The Relationship Between Adversity and Prosocial Attitudes and Behavior Toward Disadvantaged Outgroups

This article reports the results of 2 studies examining altruism born of suffering (E. Staub & J. R. Vollhardt, 2008). More specifically, we examined inclusive altruism born of suffering, which is directed toward members of disadvantaged outgroups. Drawing on and integrating clinical and social psychological theories, we hypothesized that individuals who had suffered from adverse life events would be more likely to help the outgroups in need than those who had not suffered. This was demonstrated for helpers who had experienced various forms of suffering (interpersonal and group-based harm, natural disasters) and for 2 distinct types of prosocial behavior and attitudes (long-term volunteering and disaster aid) benefiting outgroups within society and from other countries. We also found that prosocial attitudes toward tsunami victims were highest among those who had suffered in a similar way (from natural disasters). Additionally, we examined the underlying social psychological processes and found that empathy and reduced ingroup bias (but not personal distress) mediated the effect (Study 2). Implications for social justice and an empowering view of victims as potential helpers in society are discussed.

Healing the roots of genocide in Rwanda

We sat in the corner of a clearing in the banana fields, a few miles outside Rwanda’s capital city of Kigali. Some 200 or more villagers were gathered in the clearing, listening silently to their neighbors talk about what had happened nine years ago, during the genocide. Most of the killing was conducted by hand. Brandishing machetes, militia gangs moved from house to house looking for more victims, while those who fled were often murdered at roadblocks. Segments of the military used their weapons to kill. Teachers turned against their students; neighbors turned against each other.

Building a Peaceful Society Origins, Prevention, and Reconciliation After Genocide and Other Group Violence

The 20th century was a century of genocide and other great violence between groups within societies. Already at the beginning of the 21st century, there have been mass killings, civil wars, violent conflict, and terrorism. This article summarizes influences that tend to lead to intense group violence. It then considers prevention, stressing early prevention--and reconciliation as an aspect of prevention--and focusing on central principles and practices. The principles include developing positive orientations to previously devalued groups; healing from past victimization and promoting altruism born of suffering; moderating respect for authority; creating constructive ideologies; promoting understanding of the origins of violence, its impact, and avenues to prevention; promoting truth, justice, and a shared history; and raising inclusively caring, morally courageous children. Practices related to all of these are also discussed. The article stresses the role of progressive change, that is, of psychological, behavioral, and social evolution, in both extreme violence and positive relations between groups; the role of passive bystanders in the unfolding of violence; and the role of active bystandership in the prevention of violence, in the promotion of reconciliation, and in the development of harmonious societies. It emphasizes psychological processes but notes the importance of creating societal institutions. The author cites findings from both laboratory research and case studies, reviews interventions and their evaluation in Rwanda, and points to the need for further research.

Preventing Violence and Terrorism and Promoting Positive Relations Between Dutch and Muslim Communities in Amsterdam

Many Western European countries have seen increasing tension between local communities and immigrant groups, especially Muslims, with mutual grievances. These tensions have been more apparent and stronger since 9/11/2001. Intensified by further terrorist attacks, the war on terror, and the fear of terrorism, negative attitudes toward Muslim populations have been increasing. While relevant to many European countries, this article focuses on the conditions and relationships between groups in the Netherlands, particularly in Amsterdam. Drawing on past work on the roots and prevention of violence and reconciliation between groups and on field experience, the article offers proposals to prevent violence and support for terrorism and foster positive group relations, such as humanizing other groups, dialogue and other practices to promote inclusive in the place of destructive ideologies, psychological healing from past woundedness, promoting pluralism, contact between groups, and the exploration of shared histor...