Ester J. de Jong

English language teacher expertise: the elephant in the room

School has become a high-stakes environment for K-12 English language learners (ELLs) who are increasingly taught in mainstream classes where they are expected to meet grade-appropriate standards developed for fluent English speakers and where they must demonstrate achievement through standardized tests in English. The mainstreaming of ELLs, along with developments in the field of English as a second language (ESL) itself, such as the integration of language and content teaching, have contributed to the diffusion and devaluation of ESL teacher expertise in the United States. Using Florida as a focal case, we describe the implementation of recent educational policy and the consequences for many ELLs and their teachers. In this context, we overview three separate studies of Florida educators (experienced inservice teachers with ESL expertise, preservice elementary teacher candidates, and preservice secondary English teacher candidates) who are enrolled in teacher education programs designed to ‘infuse’ ESL teacher competencies throughout the general curriculum. We argue that despite the progressive pedagogy and inclusive rhetoric, ELLs continue to be marginalized in mainstream contexts and ESL teacher expertise has been reconstructed as a set of generic good teaching practices appropriate for a broad range of diverse learners.

Effective Bilingual Education: From Theory to Academic Achievement in a Two-Way Bilingual Program

Abstract Program evaluation can be used to shift the debate on effective schools for bilingual students from an ideological impasse to a data- driven and research-based discussion. Using the example of the Barbieri Two-Way Bilingual Education Program in Framingham, Massachusetts, this article links theoretical understandings about bilingualism and second language acquisition to program design and implementation, and subsequently to academic outcomes. Disaggregated academic achievement data in English and Spanish show that the Barbieri program meets its academic and linguistic goals for both target groups by fifth grade. Reflections on these academic achievement patterns, in turn, have prompted changes in the program to further increase its effectiveness.Abstract Program evaluation can be used to shift the debate on effective schools for bilingual students from an ideological impasse to a data- driven and research-based discussion. Using the example of the Barbieri Two-Way Bilingual Education Program in Framingham, Massachusetts, this article links theoretical understandings about bilingualism and second language acquisition to program design and implementation, and subsequently to academic outcomes. Disaggregated academic achievement data in English and Spanish show that the Barbieri program meets its academic and linguistic goals for both target groups by fifth grade. Reflections on these academic achievement patterns, in turn, have prompted changes in the program to further increase its effectiveness.

Integration in two-way immersion education: equalising linguistic benefits for all students

Abstract As bilingual enrichment programmes that integrate language majority and language minority students, two-way immersion (TWI) programmes have the potential to overcome the harmful effects of segregation and remedial education that are the frequent byproducts of educational programmes for native speakers of languages other than English. Native/non-native speaker integration is considered essential in these programmes to achieve positive academic, linguistic and cross-cultural outcomes for all students, but these benefits have been largely assumed by educators and programme developers. The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the distribution of the linguistic benefits of student integration in TWI classrooms. We argue that, in the absence of a bilingual perspective that takes into consideration issues of differential language status and language acquisition contexts, TWI classrooms may fail to optimise language learning opportunities for all students, particularly for language minority students and in the minority language. We conclude by highlighting programmatic and instructional features that serve to equalise the linguistic benefits of these integrated classrooms.

Enhanced Knowledge and Skills for Elementary Mainstream Teachers of English Language Learners.

The placement of English language learners (ELLs) in mainstream classrooms raises important questions about the preparation of mainstream teachers to work with ELLs. Grounded by the conviction that well-prepared teachers can make a difference in student learning, and informed by current views on teacher learning and by teacher preparation research, this article conceptualizes ELL teacher expertise as enhanced expertise. It describes this expertise along 3 primary dimensions, along with examples of practices and implications for teacher preparation. The three dimensions are: (a) understanding ELLs from a bilingual and bicultural perspective; (b) understanding how language and culture shape school experiences and inform pedagogy for bilingual learners; and (c) ability to mediate a range of contextual factors in the schools and classrooms where they teach.

Policy Discourses and U.S. Language in Education Policies

Language in education policy for English language learners in the United States has varied significantly over time and has been shaped by policy discourses that could broadly be described as assimilationist (monolingual) and pluralist (multilingual) views of the role of linguistic and cultural diversity in schools. This article outlines the main arguments underlying these discourses, situating them as distinctly different societal conversations rather than mere opposites. Both discourses have historically been reflected in U.S. language policies at different times with different dimensions being highlighted within each discourse. At present time, the dominance of monolingual discourses is clear, although pluralistic spaces continue to resist monolingual trends. The article concludes with the need for constructing more pluralist discourses and proposes a framework that advocates for policies and practices that affirm cultural identities, promote additive multilingual learning environments, and support an integrative approach to the schooling of linguistically and culturally diverse learners.Language in education policy for English language learners in the United States has varied significantly over time and has been shaped by policy discourses that could broadly be described as assimilationist (monolingual) and pluralist (multilingual) views of the role of linguistic and cultural diversity in schools. This article outlines the main arguments underlying these discourses, situating them as distinctly different societal conversations rather than mere opposites. Both discourses have historically been reflected in U.S. language policies at different times with different dimensions being highlighted within each discourse. At present time, the dominance of monolingual discourses is clear, although pluralistic spaces continue to resist monolingual trends. The article concludes with the need for constructing more pluralist discourses and proposes a framework that advocates for policies and practices that affirm cultural identities, promote additive multilingual learning environments, and support an i...

Integrated Bilingual Education: An Alternative Approach.

Abstract Despite the importance of the integration of English language learners with native English speakers for social, academic, and linguistic purposes, few models of integrated bilingual education, other than two-way immersion programs, exist. This article describes one districts effort to design a K–5 late-exit bilingual program with an integration component. The study focused on the experiences of 35 bilingual and standard curriculum teachers who integrated their students for content area instruction. Analysis of written reflections submitted over 1 school year illustrates the positive influence of integration on social relationships and program status, and highlights teacher collaboration as a condition for success. The study also stresses that issues of language status and unequal student participation must receive explicit attention in integrated classrooms.

Dual language programs as a strand within a secondary school: dilemmas of school organization and the TWI mission

Dual language (DL) programs aim to create additive bilingual learning environments where the dominant language and the minority language are given equal status at the program, curricular, and instructional level. While several studies have documented the effectiveness of DL programs and classroom-based practices, few have considered how the organizational context affects the implementation of effective DL practices when the program is only a strand within the school. The purpose of this study was to consider this question in the context of a middle school two-way immersion (TWI) program through the analysis of teacher interviews, triangulated with student survey and focus group data. Our analysis suggests a basic conflict between effective TWI practices and the middle school structure. We conclude that integrated, interdisciplinary approaches that are systemically supported within the school are necessary to support TWI goals and pluralist discourses.

Two-Way Immersion for the Next Generation: Models, Policies, and Principles

ABSTRACT The potential of TWI to close the achievement gap for English language learners and to provide both native English speakers and native partner-language speakers with access to a high-quality education with positive academic, language, and sociocultural outcomes is clear. In this article, I argue that the realization of this potential for TWI programs today and in the future requires TWI educators to contextualize their practices beyond the dualities of the program. Specifically, the article discusses how the increased cultural and linguistic diversity of TWI students in the program questions the native speaker/nonnative speaker dichotomy. Further, it argues that the strict separation of the languages for instruction needs to be contextualized in light of the holistic nature of bilingualism.ABSTRACTThe potential of TWI to close the achievement gap for English language learners and to provide both native English speakers and native partner-language speakers with access to a high-quality education with positive academic, language, and sociocultural outcomes is clear. In this article, I argue that the realization of this potential for TWI programs today and in the future requires TWI educators to contextualize their practices beyond the dualities of the program. Specifically, the article discusses how the increased cultural and linguistic diversity of TWI students in the program questions the native speaker/nonnative speaker dichotomy. Further, it argues that the strict separation of the languages for instruction needs to be contextualized in light of the holistic nature of bilingualism.

Beyond Compliance: ESL Faculty's Perspectives on Preparing General Education Faculty for ESL Infusion

Abstract The trend of placing English language learners (ELLs) in mainstream classrooms has teacher education programs developing their capacity to prepare all teachers to educate ELLs. This study examined how universities in Florida implement a professional development requirement to help faculty infuse ELL content into their courses. Our findings suggest that the state mandate generated a compliance mentality and a one-size-fits-all approach that was insufficient. To develop faculty ELL expertise, a more transformative approach is needed.

Afterword: toward pluralist policies, practices, and research

Due to globalization, technological advances, and continual migration patterns, educators and policy makers around the world have to deal with increasingly complex teaching and learning contexts that are linguistically and culturally diverse. As the articles in this special issue argue, these realities call for a radical shift in the paradigms that guide and shape educational and language policy and practices in schools. Much of our formal language-in-education policies that address linguistic diversity are firmly grounded in a monolingual mindset. In this issue, we see the lack of support for strong bilingual education programs, curricular guidelines that fail to address cultural and linguistic issues, and English-only testing regimes as examples of this mindset. Elsewhere, I have labeled the paradigm that views linguistic and cultural diversity as a problem as ‘assimilationist discourses’ (de Jong 2011, 2013a). Though multifaceted, assimilationist discourses can be broadly seen as grounded in the emergence of the nation-state and its deep concern with a unifying language and national culture. Given the central role of the official or national language in the public sphere, learning the standard variety of this language is viewed as the priority for other-language speakers. Assimilationist-oriented language-in-education policies and programs focus on teaching and assessing learning in the official or school language. The students’ native languages may be tolerated, but not with the intent to develop or maintain that language and develop advanced bilingual skills. The central question that drives policy and practice is how diversity can be streamlined effectively and efficiently and be reduced through policies and practices that standardize and normalize monolingualism as the desired outcome of schooling. In this paradigm, bi/multilingualism is viewed as a problem and a source for societal problems (Ruiz 1984). The assimilationist paradigm can be contrasted with pluralist discourses which begin by positing multilingualism as the norm and desired outcome of schooling. The driving question here is how competence in multiple languages can be maintained, sustained, and expanded for the well-being of individuals, groups, and societies. This paradigm prioritizes research that show the cognitive, educational, and economic benefits of multilingualism as well as the importance of sustaining cultural identities within minority language communities. Pluralist language-in-education policies and programs are designed to build on and expand students’ linguistic and cultural resources to develop various levels of multilingual competence. These resources are considered assets and necessary supports for