Ethan S. Long

Preference Assessment Procedures for Individuals with Developmental Disabilities

Significant advancements have been made in the development of procedures to systematically identify preferred stimuli that may function as reinforcers for persons with developmental disabilities. Indirect assessment procedures include care provider and client interviews, whereas direct assessment procedures involve systematically exposing participants to stimuli while recording their responses. These types of direct assessment procedures can be categorized as either approach-based or engagement-based. Approach-based procedures involve recording the individuals’ approach responses to stimuli presented singly or concurrently with other stimuli, whereas engagement-based procedures involve recording duration of engagement with stimuli. Although the predictive validity of indirect preference assessment procedures has yet to be established, using them in combination with direct measures of preferencemaybe most efficacious for identifying potential reinforcers. Recent research on preference assessment procedures used with persons with developmental disabilities is reviewed and the variables that one might consider prior to selecting which procedure to use in a given situation are discussed.

Negative peer evaluation in adolescents : Effects of tic disorders and trichotillomania

ABSTRACT Fifty-one adolescents from a Midwestern junior high school viewed two videotape segments of actors portraying one of two habit conditions. While simulating a conversation, the four actors in the videotape segments exhibited a habit behavior (motor tic or trichotillomania) or exhibited no habit behavior. After viewing each segment, participants were asked to complete a questionnaire (Social Acceptance Scale) measuring the social acceptance of the person they just viewed. Results show that individuals who did not exhibit either habit were rated significantly higher in social acceptability than individuals who exhibited either habit. The results are mixed regarding the influence of gender on social acceptability ratings. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Evaluating the function of hair pulling: A preliminary investigation

Although little is known about the operant function of hair pulling associated with trichotillomania, attempts to further our knowledge in this area have not employed experimental methods. In the present study we assessed the hair pulling behavior of two individuals using a functional analysis methodology. The results showed that hair pulling was most probable in the alone condition. Based on the functional analysis results and information from behavioral interviews, we hypothesized that hair pulling was maintained by self-stimulation in these two subjects. We discuss limitations of the current investigation and the need for future research.

A survey of the use of functional assessment procedures in agencies serving individuals with developmental disabilities

Surveys were sent to individuals responsible for behavioral programming in agencies serving individuals with developmental disabilities in the state of North Dakota. The survey asked about various functional assessment methods (e.g., indirect methods, direct methods, and functional analysis) the participants utilize with clients exhibiting behavior problems. The majority of participants indicated that functional assessment was extremely important in developing treatment plans. Participants reported that the most frequently used indirect methods of assessment were behavioral interviews and the Functional Analysis Screening Tool. The most frequently endorsed direct method of assessment was descriptive ABC assessment. Participants reported that they utilized functional analysis in natural settings with many of their clients. Behavioral checklists and rating scales were perceived as the easiest to use, while direct observation methods were considered the most effective methods in determining the function of the behavior. Functional analysis was indicated as most useful for obtaining information needed for effective treatment. Results and the importance of surveying personnel who work with individuals with developmental disabilities are discussed. Copyright

Immediate and Subsequent Effects of Matched and Unmatched Stimuli on Targeted Vocal Stereotypy and Untargeted Motor Stereotypy

The authors evaluated the effects of matched and unmatched stimuli on immediate and subsequent engagement in targeted vocal stereotypy (Experiment 1) and untargeted motor stereotypy (Experiment 2). Results of Experiment 1 showed that (a) matched stimulation decreased immediate engagement in vocal stereotypy for 8 of 11 participants and increased subsequent engagement in vocal stereotypy for only 1 of the 8 participants and (b) unmatched stimulation decreased immediate engagement in vocal stereotypy for only 1 of 10 participants and did not increase subsequent engagement in vocal stereotypy for this participant. Results of Experiment 2 showed that for 8 of 14 participants, untargeted stereotypy increased when the matched or unmatched stimulus was present, after it was removed, or both. The authors briefly discuss the potential clinical implications of using matched stimulation to decrease vocal stereotypy and limitations of the findings.

Examining the Social Effects of Habit Behaviors Exhibited by Individuals with Mental Retardation

This study examined social perceptions of and the social impairment experienced by individuals with mental retardation who exhibit various habit behaviors. In addition, we evaluated the reliability and validity of the Social Acceptance Scale (SAS). In experiment 1, 108 college students were randomly assigned to one of four habit conditions (motor tic, vocal tic, trichotillomania, and fingernail biting). In each condition, participants viewed videotapes of two male and two female actors with mental retardation who each exhibited one of two scenarios (habit vs. no habit in a job interview situation). Participants rated the social acceptability of the actors using the SAS and made a decision to hire or not hire the actor. Results varied across habit conditions. Males and females who engaged in fingernail biting or trichotillomania were seen as less socially acceptable, and individuals with these behaviors were less likely to be hired for the job than those who did not exhibit these behaviors. In addition, males who exhibited motor and vocal tics were viewed as less socially acceptable than males who did not exhibit motor or vocal tics. Results from experiments 2 and 3 indicated that the SAS has good predictive and concurrent validity as well as good test–retest reliability, and that the SAS is a useful measure for determining a persons social acceptance. Implications of these studies are discussed.

A review of behavioral and pharmacological treatments for habit disorders in individuals with mental retardation.

This paper reviews the prevalence and behavioral and pharmacological treatment-outcome studies for habit disorders exhibited by individuals with mental retardation. The treatment-outcome studies target the habit disorders identified previously by researchers including nervous habits (nail biting, bruxism, and trichotillomania), motor and vocal tics, and Tourettes disorder. The paucity of behavioral treatments and the lack of controlled pharmacological research warrants further experimental evaluation of treatments for habit disorders affecting individuals with mental retardation. Conclusions and recommendations for future research are made.

Treatment of hair pulling and hair manipulation maintained by digital-tactile stimulation

Treatment was provided for the hair pulling and hair manipulation of a 19-year-old woman (Kris) diagnosed with mental retardation across multiple settings in her home. Treatment probes conducted prior to our formal treatment evaluation indicated that hair pulling was suppressed when Kris wore either a 2.5-lb wrist weight or a golf glove. However, these interventions did not produce sustained reductions of hair pulling during the treatment evaluation. Therefore, a procedure involving response interruption and differential reinforcement for the absence of hair pulling and hair manipulation was implemented, which produced near-zero levels of hair pulling. The results of this intervention were socially validated and recommendations for further research are provided.

Simplified Habit Reversal Plus Adjunct Contingencies in the Treatment of Thumb Sucking and Hair Pulling in a Young Child

ABSTRACT The authors examined the effectiveness of a simplified habit reversal treatment (SHR) consisting of awareness training, competing response training, and social support procedures for a 6-year-old girl who exhibited thumb sucking and covarying hair pulling. Initially, the implementation of SHR plus booster sessions for thumb sucking produced minimal reductions in thumb sucking and hair pulling. However, additional treatment phases involving differential reinforcement and response cost resulted in near zero levels of the behavior when implemented with thumb sucking and then hair pulling. Thereafter, hair pulling was treated with the same procedure, resulting in near-zero levels of behavior. Covariation of thumb sucking and hair pulling, limitations of SHR, and directions for future research involving the use of external contingencies are discussed.

Mediation of Parent-Adolescent Conflict through the Combination of Problem-Solving Communication Training and Behavioral Exchange.

ABSTRACT Problem-Solving Communication Training (PSCT) is a treatment for parent-adolescent conflict based upon behavioral-family systems theory. Although research has demonstrated that PSCT is an effective and acceptable treatment for alleviating parent-adolescent conflict, researchers note some possible limitations of PSCT. Our primary purpose here is to evaluate both the PSCT literature for parent-adolescent conflict and the literature regarding Behavioral Exchange (BE) treatment. It is conjectured that BE may address some of the limitations of traditional PSCT leading to the argument that Behavioral Marital Therapy (BMT) can serve as a model for combining BE and PSCT procedures to enhance treatment for reducing parent-adolescent conflict.