Eugene N. Ragozin

Depth-graded multilayer mirrors for the hard x-ray spectral region: theory and inverse and direct problems

A new approach is proposed for the design of wide band-pass multilayer optical elements for the hard x-ray spectral region. The method, based on the combination of analytical and numerical methods, solves the inverse problem consisting of inferring the composition profile of a depth-graded multilayer coating. First, assuming the multilayer d-spacing profile to be a monotone function of the depth and the d- spacing gradient to be large enough, we derived the differential equation that describes the change of period necessary to guarantee a given spectral reflectivity profile. Then, a computer code using an algorithm of steepest descent was used to refine numerically the multilayer period profile, each layer thickness being treated as an independent variable. When using the solution to the differential equation as a starting point of the direct problem, a many-fold decrease of computer time could be obtained. At each step, the spectral dependence of reflectivity was accurately computed using a standard matrix method. Simulations of the particular case of constant reflectivity and maximum integrated reflectivity over a wide spectral range are presented. The best choice of material pairs for comprising a depth-graded multilayer structure is discussed from the viewpoint of maximum achievable reflectivity and least number of bi-layers. Features of depth-graded multilayer mirrors, which are distinctive from conventional periodic mirrors, are examined.

Broadband normal-incidence aperiodic multilayer mirrors for soft X-ray dispersive spectroscopy: theory and implementation

Aperiodic multilayer structures (MSs) show promise as broadband soft X-ray mirrors for stigmatic diffraction spectroscopic instruments. We have derived aperiodic MSs optimized for maximum uniform normal-incidence reflectivity throughout a prescribed wavelength range, e.g., 130 - 190 Å (R=24 %), 125 - 250 Å (16 %), etc. Each of these aperiodic MSs exhibits an unparalleled integral reflectivity which substantially exceeds that of any periodic multilayer mirror pertaining to the corresponding wavelength range. Several Mo/Si aperiodic MSs were synthesized by magnetron sputtering on concave substrates to exhibit a relatively uniform reflectivity of (15 - 11)% in the 125 - 250 Å range, close to the theoretical predictions. These multilayers served as the focusing elements of high-transmission stigmatic transmission grating spectrograph with a plate scale of 20 or 4 Å/mm. The spectrograph was employed to investigate the laser plasma - gas jet interaction and characterize the Xe gas-jet laser-plasma XUV radiation source simultaneously with spatial and spectral resolution in the wavelength range above 124 Å. We have theoretically explored into the reflection of extremely short X-ray pulses by MSs. Special-design aperiodic MSs were shown to possess the unrivaled capacity to reflect few-cycle X-ray pulses ranging into the attoseconds. Aperiodic MSs have been calculated that are capable of reflecting pulses which comprise only three wave periods of an X-ray electromagnetic wave.

Interaction of a pulsed gas target with Nd-laser radiation and laser-produced plasma

A spectroscopic investigation was made of a debris-free soft X-ray radiation source driven by the pulses of a solid-state laser (0.4 J, 6 ns, 1.08 microns) focused in a pulsed xenon jet. Source images at a wavelength of 180 Å were obtained using a concave soft X-ray multilayer mirror. To obtain space-resolved source emission spectra above 125 Å, advantage was taken of a stigmatic high-transmission broadband diffraction spectrograph. The spectrograph comprised a large-aperture transmission diffraction grating (1000 or 5000 lines/mm) and a novel aperiodic focusing normal-incidence multilayer mirror possessing a uniform reflectivity in the 125 -250 Å range. The yield of soft X-ray radiation was determined with the aid of a fast absolute-calibrated X-ray AXUV-5 photodiode. The photoabsorption in the peripheral gas-jet regions was found to play a significant role in the soft X-ray yield. Numerical model simulations were performed to elucidate the plasma dynamics. The soft X-ray spectrograph was also employed to study the interaction of the pulsed gas jet with the incident stream of the plasma produced by laser irradiation of a ~1-cm distant solid target. The soft X-ray spectra arising from the interaction were attributed to the charge exchange of multiply charged plasma ions with gas jet atoms.

Multilayer optics for x-ray and γ radiation

We report the experimental results on production of multilayer soft x-ray and EUV mirrors and their application in x-ray spectroscopy and fluorescence analysis, as well as for development of EUV lithographic and x-ray microscopic devices and soft x-ray point sources. The problem of the production and the investigation of short-period x-ray multilayers and multilayer (gamma) -filters is discussed.

Characterization of imaging normal-incidence multilayer mirrors for the 40- to 300-A range by spectroscopic techniques using a laser-plasma radiation source

A number of high-performance normal-incidence multilayer mirrors (MMs) have been fabricated on concave (r equals 1.6 - 2.0 m) fused silica substrates using laser deposition and a magnetron ion sputtering source. The resonance wavelengths (lambda) 0 equals 2nd of the MMs synthesized are proximate to 45, 130, 175, 190, and 304 angstroms. The MMs have been subjected to scrutiny by a spectroscopic technique employing a laser-plasma broadband XUV radiation source. The spectral shapes of the resonance reflection curves, the (lambda) 0 values, and the aperture uniformity (topography) of the mirrors have been determined spectroscopically. Normal-incidence reflection maxima, which correspond to higher-order reflection (k(lambda) equals 2n(lambda )d, k > 1), have been observed for all of the Mo-Si MMs with (lambda) >= 175 angstroms.

Manufacture and testing of x-ray optical elements for the TEREK-C and RES-C instruments on the CORONAS-I mission

The paper describes the main characteristics of the X-ray optical elements (multilayer spherical and aspherical mirrors and diffraction gratings for the 13-30 nm XUV spectral region, Bragg crystal spherical mirrors for the 0.18 and 0.84 m soft X-ray spectral regions) manufactured for the TEREK-C solar XUV telescope array and the RES-C solar spectroheliograph. The TEREK-C and RES-C instruments were placed aboard the CORONAS-I satellite which was launched on March 2, 1994. The testing procedures and results of laboratory tests in X-ray spectral range are also presented.

Stigmatic high-resolution high-throughput XUV spectroscopic instruments employing unconventional optical components

We have implemented a variety of stigmatic high-throughput high-resolution spectroscopic configurations in the XUV using focusing multilayer mirrors (MMs), transmission gratings (TGs), and conventional plane reflection gratings. A Type-I 1-m-long spectrograph, which comprises a couple of identical MMs with reflection peaks centered at 180 angstrom and a 1800 line/mm blazed grating operating in the second outside spectral order, has a residual astigmatism of 16 microns, a plate scale of 0.35 Angstrom/mm, a bandwidth of approximately 15 angstrom (FWHM), and a resolution of 24,000 (demonstrated). The solid angle of acceptance is a square which measures 0.03 rad multiplied by 0.015 rad. A density-dependent Stark shift of the 2p43s levels of Mg IV was observed in a laser plasma. A Type-II highly versatile spectrometer, which comprises one focusing MM and a TG used to disperse a converging beam, offers a high throughput and a moderate dispersion, with a plate scale typically in the range 5 - 50 angstrom/mm. With respect to these applications, a number of Mo-Si MMs were synthesized on fused silica substrates (r equals 2000 mm, D equals 60 mm). In combination with a point-like laser-plasma broadband radiation source, the Type-II configuration is by itself inherently suited for spectroscopic characterization of imaging MMs. Our capacity to evaluate the spectral response of MMs has improved dramatically after invoking a 5-cm2-aperture TG with a density of about 1000 lines/mm initially intended for x-ray astronomy. Stigmatic line spectra in a range of 165 - 185 angstrom were obtained in the Type-II configuration, and a resolution of 500 was demonstrated.

Laser plasma source of polarized monochromatic beams in the XUV around multilayer mirrors

Using soft x-ray multilayer mirrors (MMs) and a laser-plasma broadband radiation source, we have implemented a pulsed 0.5-Hz-repetition-rate source of polarized quasimonochromatic radiation in the XUV. The x-ray optical setup comprises a focusing MM at near-normal incidence, a plane polarizing MM at 41 degrees off axis, and a plane multilayer analyzer which can be rotated by 90 degrees with respect to the polarizer. A stigmatic broadband spectrometer comprising a grazing incidence toroidal mirror and a large-aperture (5 cm2) transmission grating (TG) has proved to be useful in spectroscopic characterization of plane multilayer mirrors and the laser-plasma source. The second (reference) x-ray optical channel comprises a focusing MM and serves to monitor the energy of individual pulses. The focusing MMs image the laser-plasma source onto the sodium-salicylate-covered surfaces of flexible 0.7-cm-long light guides 13 mm in diameter coupled through light-guide disks to photomultipliers outside the vacuum tank. The visible and VUV radiation outside the resonance reflection peak is rejected by free-standing Al filters placed before the detectors. The dimension of the x-ray source was measured at 100 microns (width at base) using a CCD array covered with sodium salicylate. The polarizance of the plane MM was measured at 98.2% while the peak theoretical value for this Mo-Si multilayer structure (2d equals 240 angstrom, N equals 25, lambdao equals 171.4 angstrom, 41 degrees off axis) is 98.75%. The polarized source yields of the order of 5 (DOT) 108 photons per pulse in the resonance reflection band of the MMs.

Spectroscopic characterization of soft x-ray multilayer optics using a broadband laser-plasma radiation source

We present the spectroscopic techniques for studying imaging, spectral, and polarizing properties of multilayer optics intended for solar astronomy and laboratory applications. The measurements were performed using line or quasicontinuous radiation (15 - 400 angstrom) of a point-like source driven by 0.15-J, 5-ns laser pulses at 0.54 micrometer. The imaging quality of focusing normal-incidence multilayer mirrors (MMs) in the subarcsecond resolution range was evaluated from small- source imaging tests employing a high-resolution photographic film. The spectral properties of focusing and plane MMs were measured using the configuration of a transmission grating spectrograph with a medium dispersion, the plate scale typically lying in the range 10 - 30 angstroms/mm. This technique allowed us to measure: (1) the resonance wavelengths versus MM aperture (evaluation of lateral uniformity of the d- spacing); (2) the spectral shape of the primary resonance reflection peak; (3) outside-resonance reflection and higher- order reflection maxima revealed under irradiation by a broad spectrum; (4) for plane MMs, the reflectivities at arbitrary angles of incidence. In the evaluation of plane MMs, the function of focusing radiation was transferred to grazing- incidence toroidal mirrors. About 40 MMs ranging in resonance wavelength from 45 to 310 angstroms, synthesized in different laboratories, were studied using these techniques. A broadband spectrograph comprising a grazing-incidence toroidal mirror and a transmission grating proved to be inherently suited for characterizing the laser-plasma source itself. Two versions of tungsten-coated toroidal mirrors were used, which operated at grazing angles of 7.6 degrees and 4 degrees and had the respective practical short-wave cutoffs at about 40 and 15 angstroms. A source of collimated polarized quasimonochromatic radiation in the 170 to 180 angstrom band was implemented around MMs and our laser-plasma source. The peak polarizance of plane Mo-Si MMs with a d-spacing of 120 angstroms, measured around 175 angstroms at 41 degrees off normal, proved to be 98.2%, which was consistent with the calculated value (98.75%). Two high-resolution high-throughput stigmatic spectrographs were implemented, each comprising a couple of identical concave normal-incidence MMs and a plane grating at grazing incidence. Space-resolved line spectra of laser- produced plasma were obtained and analyzed. The spectrograph for the 130 - 140 angstrom range had a practical resolving power of at least 4000, a plate scale of 0.7 angstroms/mm, and measured 0.6 m. These parameters for the 170 - 190 angstrom range instrument were respectively 24,000, 0.35 angstrom/mm, and 1.1 m. A highly dispersive spectroheliograph was put to a test using a laser-plasma source; the configuration was closely related to that of the spectrograph but involved a reversed ray propagation.

Stigmatic high-resolution high-throughput narrowband diffraction spectrograph employing multilayer mirrors

A novel diffraction spectroscopic instrument comprising two focusing multilayer mirrors (MMs) at near-normal incidence and a conventional blazed plane grating at grazing incidence has been implemented. A nearly perfect stigmatism and a theoretical resolving power above 6 X 104 are due to the separation of the focusing and dispersing functions. For higher throughput, MMs with nearly identical resonance reflection curves around (lambda) 0 approximately equals 135 angstroms have been synthesized employing a magnetron ion sputtering source. The instrument performance has been assessed using a laser-plasma XUV radiation source. The spectral resolution in excess of 4 X 103 and the applicability to space-resolved spectroscopy and plasma diagnosis have been demonstrated.