Eugene S. Ilton

In Situ Molecular Spectroscopic Evidence for CO2 Intercalation into Montmorillonite in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

The interaction of anhydrous supercritical CO(2) (scCO(2)) with both kaolinite and ~1W (i.e., close to but less than one layer of hydration) calcium-saturated montmorillonite was investigated under conditions relevant to geologic carbon sequestration (50 °C and 90 bar). The CO(2) molecular environment was probed in situ using a combination of three novel high-pressure techniques: X-ray diffraction, magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and attenuated total reflection infrared spectroscopy. We report the first direct evidence that the expansion of montmorillonite under scCO(2) conditions is due to CO(2) migration into the interlayer. Intercalated CO(2) molecules are rotationally constrained and do not appear to react with waters to form bicarbonate or carbonic acid. In contrast, CO(2) does not intercalate into kaolinite. The findings show that predicting the seal integrity of caprock will have complex dependence on clay mineralogy and hydration state.

Influence of Dynamical Conditions on the Reduction of UVI at the Magnetite—Solution Interface

The heterogeneous reduction of U(VI) to U(IV) by ferrous iron is believed to be a key process influencing the fate and transport of U in the environment. The reactivity of both sorbed and structural Fe(II) has been studied for numerous substrates, including magnetite. Published results from U(VI)-magnetite experiments have been variable, ranging from no reduction to clear evidence for the formation of U(IV). In this contribution, we used XAS and high resolution (+/-cryogenic) XPS to study the interaction of U(VI) with nanoparticulate magnetite. The results indicated that U(VI) was partially reduced to U(V) with no evidence of U(IV). However, thermodynamic calculations indicated that U phases with average oxidation states below (V) should have been stable, indicating that the system was not in redox equilibrium. A reaction pathway that involves incorporation and stabilization of U(V) and U(VI) into secondary phases is invoked to explain the observations. The results suggest an important and previously unappreciated role of U(V) in the fate and transport of uranium in the environment.

In Situ X-ray Diffraction Study of Na+ Saturated Montmorillonite Exposed to Variably Wet Super Critical CO2

Reactions involving variably hydrated super critical CO(2) (scCO(2)) and a Na saturated dioctahedral smectite (Na-STX-1) were examined by in situ high-pressure X-ray diffraction at 50 °C and 90 bar, conditions that are relevant to long-term geologic storage of CO(2). Both hydration and dehydration reactions were rapid with appreciable reaction occurring in minutes and near steady state occurring within an hour. Hydration occurred stepwise as a function of increasing H(2)O in the system; 1W, 2W-3W, and >3W clay hydration states were stable from ~2-30%, ~31-55 < 64%, and ≥ ~71% H(2)O saturation in scCO(2), respectively. Exposure of sub 1W clay to anhydrous scCO(2) caused interlayer expansion, not contraction as expected for dehydration, suggesting that CO(2) intercalated the interlayer region of the sub 1W clay, which might provide a secondary trapping mechanism for CO(2). In contrast, control experiments using pressurized N(2) and similar initial conditions as in the scCO(2) study, showed little to no change in the d(001) spacing, or hydration states, of the clay. A salient implication for cap rock integrity is that clays can dehydrate when exposed to wet scCO(2). For example, a clay in the ~3W hydration state could collapse by ~3 Å in the c* direction, or ~15%, if exposed to scCO(2) at less than or equal to about 64% H(2)O saturation.

U(VI) Sorption and Reduction Kinetics on the Magnetite (111) Surface

Sorption of contaminants onto mineral surfaces is an important process that can restrict their transport in the environment. In the current study, uranium (U) uptake on magnetite (111) was measured as a function of time and solution composition (pH, [CO(3)](T), [Ca]) under continuous batch-flow conditions. We observed, in real-time and in situ, adsorption and reduction of U(VI) and subsequent growth of UO(2) nanoprecipitates using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and newly developed batch-flow U L(III)-edge grazing-incidence X-ray absorption spectroscopy near-edge structure (GI-XANES) spectroscopy. U(VI) reduction occurred with and without CO(3) present, and coincided with nucleation and growth of UO(2) particles. When Ca and CO(3) were both present no U(VI) reduction occurred and the U surface loading was lower. In situ batch-flow AFM data indicated that UO(2) particles achieved a maximum height of 4-5 nm after about 8 h of exposure, however, aggregates continued to grow laterally after 8 h reaching up to about 300 nm in diameter. The combination of techniques indicated that U uptake is divided into three-stages; (1) initial adsorption of U(VI), (2) reduction of U(VI) to UO(2) nanoprecipitates at surface-specific sites after 2-3 h of exposure, and (3) completion of U(VI) reduction after ~6-8 h. U(VI) reduction also corresponded to detectable increases in Fe released to solution and surface topography changes. Redox reactions are proposed that explicitly couple the reduction of U(VI) to enhanced release of Fe(II) from magnetite. Although counterintuitive, the proposed reaction stoichiometry was shown to be largely consistent with the experimental results. In addition to providing molecular-scale details about U sorption on magnetite, this work also presents novel advances for collecting surface sensitive molecular-scale information in real-time under batch-flow conditions.

Chromium sorption by phlogopite and biotite in acidic solutions at 25°C: Insights from X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and electron microscopy

Large single crystals of biotite and near endmember phlogopite were reacted with acidic Cr(VI)-and Cr(III)-bearing solutions, at 24–27°C and 1 atm. After reaction of the micas with Cr(VI) solutions, XPS analyses of biotite and phlogopite edges indicated little or no chromium on phlogopite but elevated concentrations of chromium on biotite. The binding energies for Cr2p are consistent with a Cr(III) species. XPS and SEM of biotites reacted with Cr(VI) solutions indicate that chromium is strongly sorbed by the edges of mica books relative to the basal plane. In fact, much of the chromium associated with the basal plane is sorbed by steps and micron-sized biotite flakes, or, in other words, by layer edges. TEM and SEM of biotite basal planes and edges show no Cr-rich precipitates. After reaction of the micas with a Cr(III) solution at pH = 3, XPS shows similar concentrations of a Cr(III) species on both biotite and phlogopite, and on the edges and basal planes. These results stand in strong contrast to the results from Cr(VI) solutions. XPS indicates that near-surface iron in biotite is more oxidized after reaction with Cr(VI)-bearing relative to Cr(III)-bearing solutions. A comparison of biotites and phlogopites from the Cr(VI) and Cr(III) experiments provides convincing evidence for coupled sorption and reduction of Cr(VI)aq at the biotite edge-fluid interface. Experiments with additions of potassium and sodium perchlorate confirm the importance of potassium in the heterogeneous coupled cation-electron transfer reaction. Initial observations indicate that biotite concentrated Cr(III) more strongly in Cr(VI) solutions than in the Cr(III) solution, at pH = 3 and ionic strength ≈ 10−3 M, despite the fact that there were orders-of-magnitude more Cr(III)aq in the Cr(III) solution than in the Cr(VI) solutions.

In Situ Study of CO2 and H2O Partitioning between Na–Montmorillonite and Variably Wet Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

Shale formations play fundamental roles in large-scale geologic carbon sequestration (GCS) aimed primarily to mitigate climate change and in smaller-scale GCS targeted mainly for CO2-enhanced gas recovery operations. Reactive components of shales include expandable clays, such as montmorillonites and mixed-layer illite/smectite clays. In this study, in situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and in situ infrared (IR) spectroscopy were used to investigate the swelling/shrinkage and H2O/CO2 sorption of Na(+)-exchanged montmorillonite, Na-SWy-2, as the clay is exposed to variably hydrated supercritical CO2 (scCO2) at 50 °C and 90 bar. Measured d001 values increased in stepwise fashion and sorbed H2O concentrations increased continuously with increasing percent H2O saturation in scCO2, closely following previously reported values measured in air at ambient pressure over a range of relative humidities. IR spectra show H2O and CO2 intercalation, and variations in peak shapes and positions suggest multiple sorbed types of H2O and CO2 with distinct chemical environments. Based on the absorbance of the asymmetric CO stretching band of the CO2 associated with the Na-SWy-2, the sorbed CO2 concentration increases dramatically at sorbed H2O concentrations from 0 to 4 mmol/g. Sorbed CO2 then sharply decreases as sorbed H2O increases from 4 to 10 mmol/g. With even higher sorbed H2O concentrations as saturation of H2O in scCO2 was approached, the concentration of sorbed CO2 decreased asymptotically. Two models, one involving space filling and the other a heterogeneous distribution of integral hydration states, are discussed as possible mechanisms for H2O and CO2 intercalations in montmorillonite. The swelling/shrinkage of montmorillonite could affect solid volume, porosity, and permeability of shales. Consequently, the results may aid predictions of shale caprock integrity in large-scale GCS as well as methane transmissivity in enhanced gas recovery operations.

Dynamic processes occurring at the CrIIIaq-manganite (γ-MnOOH) interface: simultaneous adsorption, microprecipitation, oxidation/reduction, and dissolution

The complex interaction between Cr III aq and manganite (-MnOOH) was systematically studied at room temperature over a pH range of 3 to 6, and within a concentration range of 10 4 to 10 2 M CrOH 2 aq . Solution compositional changes during batch reactions were characterized by inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy and ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry. The manganites were characterized before and after reaction with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high-resolution field- emission SEM, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy analysis. Fluid-cell atomic force microscopy was used to follow these metal-mineral interactions in situ. The reactions are characterized by (1) sorption of Cr III and the surface-catalyzed microprecipitation of Cr III -hydroxy hydrate on manganite surfaces, (2) the acidic dissolution of the manganite, and (3) the simultaneous reductive dissolution of manganite coupled with the oxidation of Cr III aq to highly toxic Cr VI aq .C r III -hydroxy hydrate was shown to precipitate on the manganite surface while still undersaturated in bulk solution. The rate of manganite dissolution increased with decreasing pH due both to acid-promoted and Mn-reduction-promoted dissolution. Cr oxidation also increased in the lower pH range, this as a result of its direct redox coupling with Mn reduction. Neither Mn II nor Cr VI were ever detected on manganite surfaces, even at the maximum rate of their generation. At the highest pHs of this study, Cr III aq was effectively removed from solution to form Cr III -hydroxy hydrate on manganite surfaces and in the bulk solution, and manganite dissolution and Cr VI aq generation were minimized. All interface reactions described above were heterogeneous across the manganite surfaces. This heterogeneity is a direct result of the heterogeneous semiconducting nature of natural manganite crystals and is also an expression of the proximity effect, whereby redox processes on semiconducting surfaces are not limited to next nearest neighbor sites. Copyright

CO2 Sorption to Subsingle Hydration Layer Montmorillonite Clay Studied by Excess Sorption and Neutron Diffraction Measurements

Geologic storage of CO(2) requires that the caprock sealing the storage rock is highly impermeable to CO(2). Swelling clays, which are important components of caprocks, may interact with CO(2) leading to volume change and potentially impacting the seal quality. The interactions of supercritical (sc) CO(2) with Na saturated montmorillonite clay containing a subsingle layer of water in the interlayer region have been studied by sorption and neutron diffraction techniques. The excess sorption isotherms show maxima at bulk CO(2) densities of ≈ 0.15 g/cm(3), followed by an approximately linear decrease of excess sorption to zero and negative values with increasing CO(2) bulk density. Neutron diffraction experiments on the same clay sample measured interlayer spacing and composition. The results show that limited amounts of CO(2) are sorbed into the interlayer region, leading to depression of the interlayer peak intensity and an increase of the d(001) spacing by ca. 0.5 Å. The density of CO(2) in the clay pores is relatively stable over a wide range of CO(2) pressures at a given temperature, indicating the formation of a clay-CO(2) phase. At the excess sorption maximum, increasing CO(2) sorption with decreasing temperature is observed while the high-pressure sorption properties exhibit weak temperature dependence.

Identification of Simultaneous U(VI) Sorption Complexes and U(IV) Nanoprecipitates on the Magnetite (111) Surface

Sequestration of uranium (U) by magnetite is a potentially important sink for U in natural and contaminated environments. However, molecular-scale controls that favor U(VI) uptake including both adsorption of U(VI) and reduction to U(IV) by magnetite remain poorly understood, in particular, the role of U(VI)-CO(3)-Ca complexes in inhibiting U(VI) reduction. To investigate U uptake pathways on magnetite as a function of U(VI) aqueous speciation, we performed batch sorption experiments on (111) surfaces of natural single crystals under a range of solution conditions (pH 5 and 10; 0.1 mM U(VI); 1 mM NaNO(3); and with or without 0.5 mM CO(3) and 0.1 mM Ca) and characterized surface-associated U using grazing incidence extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (GI-EXAFS), grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GI-XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In the absence of both carbonate ([CO(3)](T), denoted here as CO(3)) and calcium (Ca), or in the presence of CO(3) only, coexisting adsorption of U(VI) surface species and reduction to U(IV) occurs at both pH 5 and 10. In the presence of both Ca and CO(3), only U(VI) adsorption (VI) occurs. When U reduction occurs, nanoparticulate UO(2) forms only within and adjacent to surface microtopographic features such as crystal boundaries and cracks. This result suggests that U reduction is limited to defect-rich surface regions. Further, at both pH 5 and 10 in the presence of both CO(3) and Ca, U(VI)-CO(3)-Ca ternary surface species develop and U reduction is inhibited. These findings extend the range of conditions under which U(VI)-CO(3)-Ca complexes inhibit U reduction.

Reduction of U(VI) Incorporated in the Structure of Hematite

U(VI) doped hematite was synthesized and exposed to two different organic reductants with E(0) of 0.23 and 0.70 V. A combination of HAADF-TEM and EXAFS provided evidence that uranium was incorporated in hematite in uranate, likely octahedral coordination. XPS indicated that structurally incorporated U(VI) was reduced to U(V), whereas non-incorporated U(VI) was reduced to U(IV). Specifically, the experiments indicate that U(V) was the dominant oxidation state of uranium in hematite around Eh -0.24 to -0.28 V and pH 7.7-8.6 for at least up to 5 weeks of reaction time. U(V), but not U(IV), was also detected in hematite at Eh +0.21 V (pH 7.1-7.3). The results support the hypothesis, based on previous experimental and theoretical work, that the stability field of U(V) is widened relative to U(IV) and U(VI) in uranate coordination environments where the coordination number of U is less than 8.