Eva A. van Reijmersdal

Reconsidering advertising literacy as a defense against advertising effects

It is widely assumed that advertising literacy makes children less susceptible to advertising effects. However, empirical research does not provide convincing evidence for this view. In this article, we explain why advertising literacy as it is currently defined (i.e., conceptual knowledge of advertising) is not effective in reducing childrens advertising susceptibility. Specifically, based on recent insights on childrens advertising processing, we argue that due to the affect-based nature of contemporary advertising, children primarily process advertising under conditions of low elaboration and, consequently, are unlikely to use their advertising knowledge as a critical defense. Moreover, literature on cognitive development suggests that childrens ability to use advertising knowledge as a defense will be further limited by their immature executive functioning and emotion regulation abilities. Therefore, we argue that the current conceptualization of advertising literacy needs to be extended with two dimensions: advertising literacy performance, which takes into account the actual use of conceptual advertising knowledge, and attitudinal advertising literacy, which includes low-effort, attitudinal mechanisms that can function as a defense under conditions of low elaboration. We conclude our article with specific directions for future research and implications for the ongoing societal and political debate about children and advertising.

The effects of interactive brand placements in online games on children's cognitive, affective, and conative brand responses

This study investigated how persuasive messages integrated in an online game affects childrens cognitive, affective, and conative responses to the brand, as well as their attitude toward the game itself. An experiment conducted among 2453 girls between the ages of 11 and 17 demonstrated that confrontation with interactive brand placement in the game resulted in more positive attitudes toward the game, higher top of mind awareness of the brand, more positive brand images, and more favorable behavioral intentions. In addition, consistent with persuasion literature and theories on child development, this study showed that there was a three-way interaction effect between exposure to the brand placement, age, and prior brand use for behavioral intentions. The youngest girls who had no prior experience with the brand were more strongly influenced by the brand placement than the oldest girls who had no prior brand experience.

Effects of online advertising format and persuasion knowledge on audience reactions

In an experiment (N = 99), effects of subtle and prominent online advertising formats, respectively sponsored content and banner ads, on audience reactions toward the advertisement are tested. In addition, the role of several persuasion knowledge elements such as understanding of persuasive intent and ad skepticism in processing online advertising formats is investigated. Results show that participants find the sponsored content more informative, more amusing, and less irritating than the banner ad. With respect to persuasion knowledge, recognition of the advertising format, understanding of persuasive intent, and ad skepticism are higher for banner ads than for sponsored content. Furthermore, ad skepticism seems to be strongly related to perceived advertising value. These new findings show that persuasion knowledge plays a role in the appreciation of subtle and prominent online advertising formats.

Children’s Advertising Exposure, Advertised Product Desire, and Materialism: : A Longitudinal Study

Previous studies have suggested that advertising exposure affects materialism among youth. However, this causal effect has not been investigated among children in middle childhood, who are in the midst of consumer development. Furthermore, the mechanism underlying this relation has not been studied. To fill these lacunae, this study focused on the longitudinal relation between children’s television advertising exposure and materialism. We investigated advertised product desire as a mediating variable. A sample of 466 Dutch children (ages 8-11) was surveyed twice within a 12-month interval. The results show that advertising exposure had a positive longitudinal effect on materialism. This effect was fully mediated by children’s increased desire for advertised products.

Mixing advertising and editorial content in radio programmes: appreciation and recall of brand placements versus commercials

Although the literature on brand placement is rapidly evolving, no studies thus far have focused on radio brand placement or on the effects of the combination of brand placement and commercials. Therefore, the present experiment (N = 153) focused on the effects of radio brand placement on liking, credibility and brand recall. In addition, the effects of the combination of brand placement and a commercial were studied. As predicted based on source credibility and intentional exposure theory, the results showed that brand placement is more liked and perceived as more credible than commercials, and that exposure to brand placement has a stronger effect on brand recall. A combination of brand placement and a commercial evokes higher brand recall than exposure to a commercial alone. However, there were no synergy effects for the combination of brand placement and a commercial. Underlying mechanisms were tested, showing the importance of format credibility in brand placement effects.Although the literature on brand placement is rapidly evolving, no studies thus far have focused on radio brand placement or on the effects of the combination of brand placement and commercials. Therefore, the present experiment (N = 153) focused on the effects of radio brand placement on liking, credibility and brand recall. In addition, the effects of the combination of brand placement and a commercial were studied. As predicted based on source credibility and intentional exposure theory, the results showed that brand placement is more liked and perceived as more credible than commercials, and that exposure to brand placement has a stronger effect on brand recall. A combination of brand placement and a commercial evokes higher brand recall than exposure to a commercial alone. However, there were no synergy effects for the combination of brand placement and a commercial. Underlying mechanisms were tested, showing the importance of format credibility in brand placement effects.

Effects of Disclosing Sponsored Content in Blogs How the Use of Resistance Strategies Mediates Effects on Persuasion

This article presents two studies examining the effects of disclosing online native advertising (i.e., sponsored content in blogs) on people’s brand attitude and purchase intentions. To investigate the mechanisms underlying these effects, we integrated resistance theories with the persuasion knowledge model. We theorize that disclosures activate people’s persuasion knowledge, which in turn evokes resistance strategies that people use to cope with the persuasion attempt made in the blog. We tested our predications with two experiments (N = 118 and N = 134). We found that participants indeed activated persuasion knowledge in response to disclosures, after which they used both cognitive (counterarguing) and affective (negative affect) resistance strategies to decrease persuasion. The obtained insights do not only advance our theoretical understanding of how disclosures of sponsored blogs affect persuasion but also provide valuable insights for legislators, advertisers, and bloggers.

Boys’ responses to the integration of advertising and entertaining content

Purpose – The purposes of this paper are to investigate the effects of integrated advertising formats on the persuasion of children, children’s awareness of the persuasive intent of these formats and how this awareness mediates the level of persuasion. Design/methodology/approach – An one-factor between-subjects experiment was conducted among 117 boys from 8 to 12 years old. Findings – This study showed that boys were more aware of the persuasive intent of a non-integrated catalog than of a brand-integrated magazine. In addition, higher awareness of the persuasive intent of the catalog enhanced persuasion in boys. Research limitations/implications – This study only focused on boys’ responses and not on girls. Practical implications – Findings imply that advertisers could focus on non-integrated print advertising formats, such as catalogs, to promote positive product attitudes among boys. Catalogs are also a more ethical way of communicating to boys because boys are generally aware of catalogs’ persuasive ...

Appreciation and effects of sponsorship disclosure

With the continuing growth of the paid inclusion of brands in television programs, the lines between editorial and commercial content are more and more blurred. This has attracted criticism from consumer advocacy groups, public policy officials, the media and consumers, claiming that sponsored content in TV programs is unethical and deceptive (Cain, 2011; Kuhn, Hume, & Love, 2010). They argue that because this form of advertising is embedded into program content, the commercial intent is kept hidden (Bhatnagar, Aksoy, & Malkoc, 2004). Consequently, viewers are not always aware of the commercial and persuasive purpose of sponsored program content, and – as a result – they do not activate their cognitive defences and can be influenced without being aware (Kuhn et al., 2010; Lee, 2008).

Disclosing Brand Placements in Movies

Recently, the European Union has decided that disclosures of brand placement are obligatory. However, the effects of such disclosures remain largely unstudied. Departing from theoretical notions of the persuasion knowledge model, this study examined how different types of disclosures and viewer involvement with a movie clip affected attitudes toward the placed brand. In addition, the role of attitude toward the placement as mediator was tested. The study employed a one-factorial (no disclosure, disclosure of source, disclosure of source and intent) between-subjects design using an online survey (N = 191). The results showed that disclosure of both the commercial source and the persuasive intent of brand placement resulted in more negative placement attitudes and in turn in more negative brand attitudes than in the absence of a disclosure. In addition, involvement with the movie moderated the disclosure effects: The brand attitudes of high-involved viewers became more negative via placement attitudes when disclosures were shown, regardless of the type of disclosure. For low-involved viewers, a disclosure of both the commercial source and the persuasive intent was necessary to affect brand attitude negatively via placement attitude. These results show that brand placement disclosures can mitigate persuasion. However, the effects depend on the disclosure type and movie involvement. These findings have important implications for theory, legislation, and practice.

Strengthening children's advertising defenses: The effects of forewarning of commercial and manipulative intent

This study investigated whether a forewarning of advertising’s intent can increase children’s (N = 159, 8–10 years old) defenses against television commercials to lower their desire for advertised products. Two different forewarnings were tested, one for advertising’s commercial intent or warning for the promotional nature, and one for advertising’s manipulative intent or warning for the deceptive nature. Results showed that only the warning of manipulative intent prior to advertising exposure was successful in increasing children’s advertising defenses. This forewarning activated children’s attitudinal advertising literacy (i.e., skepticism toward the commercial), which in turn led to lower advertised product desire. The forewarning of commercial intent was not effective in strengthening children’s advertising defenses. These findings have important implications for interventions that aim to lower children’s desire for (unhealthy) advertised products by activating their advertising literacy.