Eva Szegezdi

Mediators of endoplasmic reticulum stress‐induced apoptosis

The efficient functioning of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is essential for most cellular activities and survival. Conditions that interfere with ER function lead to the accumulation and aggregation of unfolded proteins. ER transmembrane receptors detect the onset of ER stress and initiate the unfolded protein response (UPR) to restore normal ER function. If the stress is prolonged, or the adaptive response fails, apoptotic cell death ensues. Many studies have focused on how this failure initiates apoptosis, as ER stress‐induced apoptosis is implicated in the pathophysiology of several neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we examine the role of the molecules that are activated during the UPR in order to identify the molecular switch from the adaptive phase to apoptosis. We discuss how the activation of these molecules leads to the commitment of death and the mechanisms that are responsible for the final demise of the cell.

Caspase‐12 and ER‐Stress‐Mediated Apoptosis

Abstract: The labyrinth of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) interweaves the cytosol and connects to the nucleus, mitochondria, and the plasma membrane. In the lumen of the ER, the essential function of lipid synthesis, Ca2+ storage, folding, and maturation of proteins take place. Therefore, the tight regulation and maintenance of ER homeostasis is vital. Disturbance of the Ca2+ homeostasis during hypoxia, or imbalance between the demand and capacity of the protein‐folding apparatus, initiates an adaptive response of the cell, termed the unfolded protein response (UPR, ER stress response). As a result, ER‐localized chaperones are induced, protein synthesis is slowed down, and a protein degrading system is initiated. However, if the ER stress cannot be alleviated, it culminates in apoptosis. This paper reviews the newly outlined signaling pathways of the unfolded protein response and describes the central role of caspase‐12 in the initiation of cell death. The complex role of the ER and its signaling pathways provides a novel angle on apoptosis research and may offer a key to apoptosis‐associated diseases.

Transglutaminase 2-/- mice reveal a phagocytosis-associated crosstalk between macrophages and apoptotic cells

Tissue transglutaminase (TGase2) is a protein-crosslinking enzyme known to be associated with the in vivo apoptosis program. Here we report that apoptosis could be induced in TGase2-/- mice; however, the clearance of apoptotic cells was defective during the involution of thymus elicited by dexamethasone, anti-CD3 antibody, or γ-irradiation, and in the liver after induced hyperplasia. The lack of TGase2 prevented the production of active transforming growth factor-β1 in macrophages exposed to apoptotic cells, which is required for the up-regulation of TGase2 in the thymus in vivo, for accelerating deletion of CD4+CD8+ cells and for efficient phagocytosis of apoptotic bodies. The deficiency is associated with the development of splenomegaly, autoantibodies, and immune complex glomerulonephritis in TGase2-/- mice. These findings have broad implications not only for diseases linked to inflammation and autoimmunity but also for understanding the interrelationship between the apoptosis and phagocytosis process.

Bcl-2 family on guard at the ER

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the main site for protein folding, lipid biosynthesis, and calcium storage in the cell. Disturbances of these critical cellular functions lead to ER stress. The ER responds to disturbances in its homeostasis by launching an adaptive signal transduction pathway, known as the unfolded protein response (UPR). The UPR strives to maintain ER function during stress; however, if the stress is not resolved, apoptotic responses are activated that involve cross talk between the ER and mitochondria. In addition, ER stress is also known to induce autophagy to counteract XBP-1-mediated ER expansion and assist in the degradation of unfolded proteins. One family of proteins involved in the regulation of apoptosis is that of B-cell lymphoma protein 2 (Bcl-2). Complex interactions among the three subgroups within the Bcl-2 family [the antiapoptotic, the multidomain proapoptotic, and the Bcl-2 homology domain 3 (BH3)-only members] control the signaling events of apoptosis upstream of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. These proteins were found to have diverse subcellular locations to aid in the response to varied intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli. Of recent interest is the presence of the Bcl-2 family at the ER. Here, we review the involvement of proteins from each of the three Bcl-2 family subgroups in the maintenance of ER homeostasis and their participation in ER stress signal transduction pathways.

TRAIL receptor signalling and modulation : Are we on the right TRAIL?

Tumour necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand or Apo2 ligand (TRAIL/Apo2L) is a member of the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily of cytokines that induces apoptosis upon binding to its death domain-containing transmembrane receptors, death receptors 4 and 5 (DR4, DR5). Importantly, TRAIL preferentially induces apoptosis in cancer cells while exhibiting little or no toxicity in normal cells. To date, research has focused on the mechanism of apoptosis induced by TRAIL and the processes involved in the development of TRAIL resistance. TRAIL-resistant tumours can be re-sensitized to TRAIL by a combination of TRAIL with chemotherapeutics or irradiation. Studies suggest that in many cancer cells only one of the two death-inducing TRAIL receptors is functional. These findings as well as the aim to avoid decoy receptor-mediated neutralization of TRAIL led to the development of receptor-specific TRAIL variants and agonistic antibodies. These molecules are predicted to be more potent than native TRAIL in vivo and may be suitable for targeted treatment of particular tumours. This review focuses on the current status of TRAIL receptor-targeting for cancer therapy, the apoptotic signalling pathway induced by TRAIL receptors, the prognostic implications of TRAIL receptor expression and modulation of TRAIL sensitivity of tumour cells by combination therapies. The mechanisms of TRAIL resistance and the potential measures that can be taken to overcome them are also addressed. Finally, the status of clinical trials of recombinant TRAIL and DR4-/DR5-specific agonistic antibodies as well as the pre-clinical studies of receptor-selective TRAIL variants is discussed including the obstacles facing the use of these molecules as anti-cancer therapeutics.

Metabolic Flexibility Permits Mesenchymal Stem Cell Survival in an Ischemic Environment

The application of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for myocardial repair following ischemic injury is of strong interest, but current knowledge regarding the survival and retention of differentiation potency of stem cells under ischemic conditions is limited. The present study investigated the effects of ischemia and its components (hypoxia and glucose depletion) on MSC viability and multipotency. We demonstrate that MSCs have a profoundly greater capacity to survive under conditions of ischemia compared with cardiomyocytes, measured by detecting changes in cellular morphology, caspase activity and phosphatidylserine exposure. MSCs were also resistant to exposure to hypoxia (0.5% O2), as well as inhibition of mitochondrial respiration with 2,4‐dinitrophenol for 72 hours, indicating that in the absence of oxygen, MSCs can survive using anaerobic ATP production. Glucose deprivation (glucose‐free medium in combination with 2‐deoxyglucose) induced rapid death of MSCs. Depletion of cellular ATP occurred at a lower rate during glucose deprivation than during ischemia, suggesting that glycolysis has specific prosurvival functions, independent of energy production in MSCs. After exposure to hypoxic or ischemic conditions, MSCs retained the ability to differentiate into chondrocytes and adipocytes and, more importantly, retained cardiomyogenic potency. These results suggest that MSCs are characterized by metabolic flexibility, which enables them to survive under conditions of ischemic stress and retain their multipotent phenotype. These results highlight the potential utility of MSCs in the treatment of ischemic disease.

The mitochondrial death pathway: a promising therapeutic target in diseases

•  Introduction •  Mitochondria and cell death •  Mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP): point of no return ‐  MOMP by BCL‐2 family proteins ‐  MOMP by permeability transition pore ‐  Regulation of MOMP: many ways to skin the cat ‐  Role of calcium in MOMP ‐  ROS‐induced MOMP ‐  Role of caspases in MOMP ‐  Other regulators of MOMP •  Mitochondrial IMS: poison cabinet •  Mitochondrial pathway of cell death and disease pathogenesis ‐  Ischemia/reperfusion ‐  Neurodegenerative disorders ‐  Cancer ‐  Mitochondrial encephalomyopathies ‐  Others •  Therapeutic strategies that promote MOMP and cell death ‐  Targeting the BCL‐2 family ‐  BCL‐2 antisense‐based strategies ‐  BAX‐delivery vector ‐  BH3 mimetic peptides ‐  Natural and synthetic BH3 mimetic drugs ‐  Targeting mitochondria directly: mitochondriotoxic compounds inducing mitochondrial membrane permeabilization ‐  Peptide derivatives ‐  Small molecules ‐  Cationic lipophilic agents ‐  Bypassing the mitochondria: mitochondrial pro‐apoptotic factors as chemotherapeutic agents •  Therapeutic strategies that inhibit MOMP and cell death ‐  Cyclosporin A and the inhibition of MPT ‐  Novel CsA analogues and other inhibitors of the pore ‐  Preconditioning of the heart protects by sparing mitochondria ‐  Pharmacological IPC mimetics ‐  Minocycline ‐  Inhibitors of PARP and the prevention of DNA damage‐mediated mitochondrial damage •  Conclusion and future directions

Distinct mechanisms of cardiomyocyte apoptosis induced by doxorubicin and hypoxia converge on mitochondria and are inhibited by Bcl-xL

Hypoxia and doxorubicin can cause cardiotoxicity and loss of myocardial function. These effects are due, in part, to an induction of apoptosis. Herein we identify the apoptotic pathways activated in H9c2 cells in response to hypoxia (O2/N2/CO2, 0.5:94.5:5) and doxorubicin (0.5 μM). Although the apoptosis induced was accompanied by induction of Fas and Fas ligand, the death receptor pathway was not critical for caspase activation by either stimulus. Hypoxia induced the expression of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress mediators and processed ER‐resident pro‐caspase‐12 whereas doxorubicin did not induce an ER stress response. Most importantly, both stimuli converged on mitochondria to promote apoptosis. Accumulation of cytochrome c in the cytosol coincided with the processing of pro‐caspase‐9 and ‐3. Increasing the expression of the anti‐apoptotic protein Bcl‐xL, either by dexamethasone or adenovirus‐mediated transduction, protected H9c2 cells from doxorubicin‐ and hypoxia‐induced apoptosis. Bcl‐xL attenuated mitochondrial cytochrome crelease and reduced downstream pro‐caspase processing and apoptosis. These data demonstrate that two distinct cardiomyocyte‐damaging stimuli converge on mitochondria thus presenting this organelle as a potentially important therapeutic target for anti‐apoptotic strategies for cardiovascular diseases.

Mechanisms of ER Stress-Mediated Mitochondrial Membrane Permeabilization

During apoptosis, the process of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) represents a point-of-no-return as it commits the cell to death. Here we have assessed the role of caspases, Bcl-2 family members and the mitochondrial permeability transition pore on ER stress-induced MOMP and subsequent cell death. Induction of ER stress leads to upregulation of several genes such as Grp78, Edem1, Erp72, Atf4, Wars, Herp, p58ipk, and ERdj4 and leads to caspase activation, release of mitochondrial intermembrane proteins and dissipation of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm). Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) from caspase-9, -2 and, -3 knock-out mice were resistant to ER stress-induced apoptosis which correlated with decreased processing of pro-caspase-3 and -9. Furthermore, pretreatment of cells with caspase inhibitors (Boc-D.fmk and DEVD.fmk) attenuated ER stress-induced loss of ΔΨm. However, only deficiency of caspase-9 and -2 could prevent ER stress-mediated loss of ΔΨm. Bcl-2 overexpression or pretreatment of cells with the cell permeable BH4 domain (BH4-Tat) or the mitochondrial permeability transition pore inhibitors, bongkrekic acid or cyclosporine A, attenuated the ER stress-induced loss of ΔΨm. These data suggest a role for caspase-9 and -2, Bcl-2 family members and the mitochondrial permeability transition pore in loss of mitochondrial membrane potential during ER stress-induced apoptosis.

An Unfractionated Fucoidan from Ascophyllum nodosum: Extraction, Characterization, and Apoptotic Effects in Vitro

An unfractionated fucoidan was extracted from the brown alga Ascophyllum nodosum. Extraction of fucoidan from seaweed was carried out using an innovative low-chemical process. A combinational approach involving compositional analysis, HPAEC, IR analysis, GPC, and NMR was employed to elucidate the composition and structure of an unfractionated fucoidan from A. nodosum. This fucoidan is composed mainly of fucose (52.1%), and also galactose (6.1%), glucose (21.3%), and xylose (16.5%). Sulfate content was determined to be 19%. GPC data indicated a polydisperse fucoidan containing two main size fractions (47 and 420 kDa). NMR analyses revealed a fucoidan displaying broad, complex signals as expected for such a high molecular weight and heterogeneous polymer with resonances consistent with a fucoidan isolated previously from A. nodosum. The effects of fucoidan on the apoptosis of human colon carcinoma cells and fucoidan-mediated signaling pathways were also investigated. Fucoidan decreased cell viability and induced apoptosis of HCT116 colon carcinoma cells. Fucoidan treatment of HCT116 cells induced activation of caspases-9 and -3 and the cleavage of PARP, led to apoptotic morphological changes, and altered mitochondrial membrane permeability. These results detail the structure and biological activity of an unfractionated fucoidan from A. nodosum.