Éva Tóth

Superparamagnetic gadonanotubes are high-performance MRI contrast agents

We report the nanoscale loading and confinement of aquated Gd3+n-ion clusters within ultra-short single-walled carbon nanotubes (US-tubes); these Gd3+n@US-tube species are linear superparamagnetic molecular magnets with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) efficacies 40 to 90 times larger than any Gd3+-based contrast agent (CA) in current clinical use.

Relaxivity of MRI contrast agents

In the recent years Magnetic Resonance Imaging has evolved into one of the most powerful diagnostic techniques in medicine, in part thanks to the application of suitable contrast agents. The design of new, more efficient MRI contrast media requires the complete understanding of all factors and mechanisms that influence proton relaxivity, hence efficiency of Gd(III) complexes. In this chapter we give an overview of our current knowledge in this field by shortly surveying theory and citing the most illustrative examples. We discuss each of the underlying factors, including the possible ways of their determination. Most recent developments in the field of electron spin relaxation and outer sphere relaxivity have also been reviewed. The last part is devoted to the comparison of the isoelectronic Eu(II) and Gd(III) complexes, which can give insight into the relaxation mechanisms of paramagnetic lanthanides in general, and thus help design novel Gd(III) based agents.

The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Helm/The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Contributors. Preface. Physical Principles of Medical Imaging by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (S. Mansson and A. Bjornerud). Relaxivity of Gadolinium (III) Complexes: Theory and Mechanism (E. Toth, et al.). Synthesis of MRI Contrast Agents I: Acyclic Ligands. (P. Anelli and L. Lattuada). Synthesis of MRI Contrast Agents II: Macrocyclic Ligands. (V. Jacques and J. Desreux). Protein--Bound Metal Chelates (S. Aime, et al.). Stability and Toxicity of Contrast Agents (E. Brucher and A. Sherry). Computational Studies Related to Gd(III)--Based Contrast Agents (D. Sulzle, et al.). Structure and Dynamics of Gadolinium--Based Contrast Agents (J. Peters, et al). Multi--Frequency and High--Frequency EPR Methods in Contrast Agent Research: Examples from GdA+ Chelates (R. Clarkson, et al). Particulate Magnetic Contrast Agents (R. Muller, et al). Photophysical Aspects of Lanthanide(III) Complexes (J. Bruce, et al).

Detection of Enzymatic Activity by PARACEST MRI: A General Approach to Target a Large Variety of Enzymes

We report a new family of molecular imaging probes that offer the possibility of specific PARACEST (paramagnetic chemical exchange saturation transfer) MRI detection of a large variety of enzymatic activities. The probes are based on a lanthanide complex coupled to an enzyme-specific substrate through a self-immolative spacer. Upon enzymatic cleavage of the substrate, the spacer is spontaneously eliminated, thereby resulting in a remarkable change in the PARACEST properties of the Ln3+ chelate. This new type of contrast agent opens up new perspectives in molecular magnetic resonance imaging.

Pyridine-Based Lanthanide Complexes: Towards Bimodal Agents Operating as Near Infrared Luminescent and MRI Reporters

We report two prototype Ln(3+) complexes that address requirements for both MRI and luminescence imaging and we demonstrate that the presence of two H(2)O molecules bound to the Ln(3+), beneficial for MRI applications of the Gd(3+) analogue, is not a major limitation for the development of NIR luminescent agents.

Gadonanotubes as Ultrasensitive pH-Smart Probes for Magnetic Resonance Imaging

With their nanoscalar, superparamagnetic Gd(3+)-ion clusters (1 x 5 nm) confined within ultrashort (20-80 nm) single-walled carbon nanotube capsules, gadonanotubes are high-performance T1-weighted contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). At 1.5 T, 37 degrees C, and pH 6.5, the r1 relaxivity (ca. 180 mM(-1) s(-1) per Gd(3+) ion) of gadonanotubes is 40 times greater than any current Gd(3+) ion-based clinical agent. Herein, we report that gadonanotubes are also ultrasensitive pH-smart probes with their r1/pH response from pH 7.0-7.4 being an order of magnitude greater than for any other MR contrast agent. This result suggests that gadonanotubes might be excellent candidates for the development of clinical agents for the early detection of cancer where the extracellular pH of tumors can drop to pH=7 or below. In the present study, gadonanotubes have also been shown to maintain their integrity when challenged ex vivo by phosphate-buffered saline solution, serum, heat, and pH cycling.

High Relaxivity for Monomeric Gd(DOTA)-Based MRI Contrast Agents, Thanks to Micellar Self-Organization

A new amphiphilic GdIIIchelate, which is capable of forming micelles in aqueous solution (see diagram), has been synthesized. Due to this self-aggregation, the compound has a long rotational correlation time and, consequently, has high proton relaxivities that thus far have only been obtained with macromolecular complexes.

Gallium(III) complexes of DOTA and DOTA-monoamide: kinetic and thermodynamic studies.

Given the practical advantages of the (68)Ga isotope in positron emission tomography applications, gallium complexes are gaining increasing importance in biomedical imaging. However, the strong tendency of Ga(3+) to hydrolyze and the slow formation and very high stability of macrocyclic complexes altogether render Ga(3+) coordination chemistry difficult and explain why stability and kinetic data on Ga(3+) complexes are rather scarce. Here we report solution and solid-state studies of Ga(3+) complexes formed with the macrocyclic ligand 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid, (DOTA)(4-), and its mono(n-butylamide) derivative, (DO3AM(Bu))(3-). Thermodynamic stability constants, log K(GaDOTA) = 26.05 and log K(GaDO3AM(Bu)) = 24.64, were determined by out-of-cell pH-potentiometric titrations. Due to the very slow formation and dissociation of the complexes, equilibration times of up to ∼4 weeks were necessary. The kinetics of complex dissociation were followed by (71)Ga NMR under both acidic and alkaline conditions. The GaDOTA complex is significantly more inert (τ(1/2) ∼12.2 d at pH = 0 and τ(1/2) ∼6.2 h at pH = 10) than the GaDO3AM(Bu) analogue (τ(1/2) ∼2.7 d at pH = 0 and τ(1/2) ∼0.7 h at pH = 10). Nevertheless, the kinetic inertness of both chelates is extremely high and approves the application of Ga(3+) complexes of such DOTA-like ligands in molecular imaging. The solid-state structure of the GaDOTA complex, crystallized from a strongly acidic solution (pH < 1), evidenced a diprotonated form with protons localized on the free carboxylate pendants.

Pyridine-based lanthanide complexes combining MRI and NIR luminescence activities.

A series of novel triazole derivative pyridine-based polyamino-polycarboxylate ligands has been synthesized for lanthanide complexation. This versatile platform of chelating agents combines advantageous properties for both magnetic resonance (MR) and optical imaging applications of the corresponding Gd(3+) and near-infrared luminescent lanthanide complexes. The thermodynamic stability constants of the Ln(3+) complexes, as assessed by pH potentiometric measurements, are in the range log K(LnL)=17-19, with a high selectivity for lanthanides over Ca(2+), Cu(2+), and Zn(2+). The complexes are bishydrated, an important advantage to obtain high relaxivities for the Gd(3+) chelates. The water exchange of the Gd(3+) complexes (k(ex)(298)=7.7-9.3×10(6) s(-1)) is faster than that of clinically used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents and proceeds through a dissociatively activated mechanism, as evidenced by the positive activation volumes (ΔV(≠)=7.2-8.8 cm(3) mol(-1)). The new triazole ligands allow a considerable shift towards lower excitation energies of the luminescent lanthanide complexes as compared to the parent pyridinic complex, which is a significant advantage in the perspective of biological applications. In addition, they provide increased epsilon values resulting in a larger number of emitted photons and better detection sensitivity. The most conjugated system PheTPy, bearing a phenyl-triazole pendant on the pyridine ring, is particularly promising as it displays the lowest excitation and triplet-state energies associated with good quantum yields for both Nd(3+) and Yb(3+) complexes. Cellular and in vivo toxicity studies in mice evidenced the non-toxicity and the safe use of such bishydrated complexes in animal experiments. Overall, these pyridinic ligands constitute a highly versatile platform for the simultaneous optimization of both MRI and optical properties of the Gd(3+) and the luminescent lanthanide complexes, respectively.

Mn2+ Complexes with Pyridine-Containing 15-Membered Macrocycles: Thermodynamic, Kinetic, Crystallographic, and 1H/17O Relaxation Studies

Given its five unpaired d-electrons, long electronic relaxation time, and fast water exchange, Mn(2+) is a potential candidate for contrast agent application in medical magnetic resonance imaging. Nevertheless, the design of chelators that ensure stable Mn(2+) complexation and optimal relaxation properties remains a coordination chemistry challenge. Here, we report the synthesis of two pyridine-containing ligands L1 and L2, with 15-membered triaza-dioxa-crown and pentaaza-crown ether macrocycles, respectively, and the characterization of their Mn(2+) complexes. Protonation constants of the ligands and stability constants of various metal complexes were determined by potentiometry. The presence of the pyridine in the macrocyclic ring induces rigidity of the complexes which results in a greater thermodynamic stability with respect to the nonpyridine analogues. Solid-state structures of MnL1 and MnL2 confirmed seven-coordination of Mn(2+) with Cl(-) and H(2)O in axial positions. The dissociation kinetics of MnL2 in the presence of Zn(2+) were followed by relaxometric measurements. They proved the prime importance of the proton-assisted dissociation while the zinc(II)-assisted pathway is not important at physiological pH. For MnL1, the dissociation was too fast to be studied by conventional relaxivity measurements under pH 6. A combined (17)O NMR and (1)H NMRD study on MnL1 and MnL2 yielded the parameters that govern the relaxivity of these complexes. The water exchange rate for MnL1, k(ex)(298) = 0.38 x 10(7) s(-1), is the lowest value ever reported for a Mn(2+) complex, while a considerably higher value was obtained for MnL2 (k(ex)(298) = 6.9 x 10(7) s(-1)). Anion binding was studied by relaxometric titrations. They revealed weak interactions between MnL2 and phosphate or citrate, leading to the formation of monohydrated species. Overall, the incorporation of a pyridine into a polyaza macrocycle scaffold has several beneficial effects on the Mn(2+) chelates with respect to potential MRI contrast agent applications: (i) The thermodynamic and the kinetic stability of the complexes is increased. (ii) The rigidified ligand backbone results in higher coordination numbers of the metal ion, allowing for two inner-sphere water molecules in aqueous solution.