Evgeny A. Bragin

Using naturally shed feathers for individual identification, genetic parentage analyses, and population monitoring in an endangered Eastern imperial eagle ( Aquila heliaca ) population from Kazakhstan

Genetic analyses on noninvasively collected samples have revolutionized how populations are monitored. Most noninvasive monitoring studies have used hair or scat for individual identification of elusive mammals, but here we utilize naturally shed feathers. The Eastern imperial eagle (EIE) is a species of conservation concern throughout Central Asia and, like most raptors, EIEs are inherently challenging to study because adults are difficult to capture and band using conventional techniques. Over 6 years, we noninvasively collected hundreds of adult feathers and directly sampled EIE chicks at a national nature reserve in Kazakhstan. All samples were genetically sexed and genotyped at a suite of microsatellite loci. Genetically profiled adult feathers identified and monitored the presence of individual eagles over time, enabling us to address a variety of issues related to the biology, demography, and conservation of EIEs. Specifically, we characterized (i) the genetic mating system, (ii) relatedness among mated pairs, (iii) chick sex ratios, and (iv) annual turnover in an adult breeding population. We show that EIEs are genetically monogamous and furthermore, there is no apparent relatedness‐based system of mate choice (e.g. inbreeding avoidance). Results indicate that annual adult EIE survivorship (84%) is lower than expected for a long‐lived raptor, but initial analyses suggest the current reproductive rate at our study site is sufficient to maintain a stable breeding population. The pristine habitat at our study site supports an EIE population that is probably the most demographically robust in the world; thus, our results caution that populations in marginal habitats may not be self‐sustaining.

SETTING HARNESS SIZES AND OTHER MARKING TECHNIQUES FOR A FALCON WITH STRONG SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

Abstract Backpack radio-tags can be used to monitor survival of raptors for several years after fledging, but may reduce survival if a poor fit results from subjective judgments. We present an attachment method that can use bird measurements to predict harness sizes. Relationships between body mass of Saker Falcons and harness size predicted the size for smaller falcon species. Harnesses were fitted when birds had reached full size in the nest, which required age estimation at a previous visit to predict a fledging date. Equations based on wing length provided objective aging of nestlings. A pump-pressured water gun aided capture of young falcons and toggle-loops restrained the feet during marking. Saker Falcons with radio-tags and others marked only with leg bands and implanted transponders had the same recapture rate (7%) in autumn, indicating similar survival. This retrap rate should be adequate to estimate harvest rates and population sizes for Saker Falcons.

Survey for Hemoparasites in Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca), Steppe Eagles (Aquila nipalensis), and White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) from Kazakhstan

Prevalence of hemoparasites has been investigated in many avian species throughout Europe and North America. Basic hematologic surveys are the first step toward evaluating whether host-parasite prevalences observed in North America and Europe occur elsewhere in the world. We collected blood smears from 94 nestling imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca), five nestling steppe eagles (Aquila nipalensis), and 14 nestling white-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) at Naurzum Zapovednik (Naurzum National Nature Reserve) in Kazakhstan during the summers of 1999 and 2000. In 1999, six of 29 imperial eagles were infected with Leucocytozoon toddi. Five of 65 imperial eagles and one of 14 white-tailed sea eagle were infected with L. toddi in 2000. Furthermore, in 2000, one of 65 imperial eagles was infected with Haemoproteus sp. We found no parasites in steppe eagles in either year, and no bird had multiple-species infections. These data are important because few hematologic studies of these eagle species have been conducted.

Rapid sustainability modeling for raptors by radiotagging and DNA-fingerprinting

Abstract Sustainable use of wildlife is crucial to ensuring persistence of natural resources. We used age-specific survival and breeding data to parameterize a demographic model for a harvested Kazakh saker falcon (Falco cherrug) population by radiotagging juveniles and estimating adult turnover with DNA-fingerprinting during 1993–1997. We gathered similar data during 1990–1998 to model populations of British buzzards (Buteo buteo), and during 1980–1998 to model populations of Swedish goshawks (Accipiter gentilis). Leg-bands and implanted microtransponders provided ways to test for bias and to estimate the harvest of sakers for falconry. Despite an estimated minimum first-year survival of only 23%, the observed productivity of 3.14 young per clutch would sustain a saker population (i.e., λ = 1) with a breeding rate (at laying) of only 0.63 for adults or with a residual juvenile yield of 37% if all adults breed. Higher first-year survival rates for goshawks and buzzards correlated with juvenile yields of up to 71%, but no more than half as many individuals if adults also were harvested. An annual population decline of 40% for sakers in southern Kazakhstan could be explained by observed productivity of only 0.71 young per clutch if there was also an estimated harvest of 55% of adults. This study shows that demographic models such as these can now be built rapidly if nestlings are fitted with reliable and safe radiotags and adult turnover is estimated from genetic analyses or other techniques.

Use of Noninvasive Genetics to Assess Nest and Space Use by White-tailed Eagles

Abstract Movement and space use are important components of animal interactions with the environment. However, for hard-to-monitor raptor species, there are substantial gaps in our understanding of these key determinants. We used noninvasive genetic tools to evaluate the details of space use over a 3-yr period by White-tailed Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) at the Naurzum Zapovednik in northern Kazakhstan. We genotyped, at 10 microsatellite markers and one mitochondrial marker, 859 eagle feathers and assigned naturally shed feathers to individuals. We identified 124 White-tailed Eagles, including both members of 5–10 pairs per year, and were able to monitor birds across years. Distances between eagle nests and hunting perches were always greater than nearest neighbor distances, eagles never used the closest available hunting perch, and hunting perches were always shared with other eagles. When eagles switched nests between years, the nests they chose were almost always well outside the space that theory predicted they defended the prior year. Our data are inconsistent with classical territorial and colonial models of resource use; they more closely resemble semi-colonial behavior. It is unlikely that standard methods of animal tracking (e.g., marking and telemetry), would have provided a similarly cost-effective mechanism to gain these insights into spatial and temporal aspects of eagle behavior. When combined with existing information on space use of other local species, these data suggest that partitioning of spatial resources among White-tailed Eagles and other eagles at the Zapovednik may be facilitated by the alternative strategies of space use they employ.

Unusual clockwise loop migration lengthens travel distances and increases potential risks for a central Asian, long distance, trans-equatorial migrant, the Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus

ABSTRACT Capsule: Red-footed Falcons Falco vespertinus migrating from northern Kazakhstan proceed west before heading south to Africa; their northbound travel follows a different route with passage close to shooting hotspots in the Mediterranean. Aim: To use tracking and ringing data to document for the first time the migration of globally threatened Red-footed Falcons from northern Kazakhstan. Methods: Light-level geolocators were deployed on breeding adults in Kazakhstan and recovered one year later. Ringing and observational data from more than 100 years of Russian-language and other literature were summarized and mapped alongside the geolocator data. Results: Geolocator, ringing and observational data together demonstrate that Red-footed Falcons from northern Kazakhstan have a clockwise loop migration that begins with a long and unusual westward trek around eastern Europe’s large inland seas before continuing to extreme southern Africa. Return migration is farther west and requires crossing two major migratory barriers: the Sahara and the Mediterranean. Conclusion: The loop migration we describe requires an extensive longitudinal movement, exposes central Asian Red-footed Falcons to multiple desert, mountain and marine crossings, and, at outbound and return Mediterranean bottlenecks, crosses sites where raptor shooting is common.

Post-fledging movements and habitat associations of White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in Central Asia

ABSTRACT Behavior of young birds can have important consequences for population dynamics. We investigated the autumnal post-fledging movements of 3 White-tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) hatched in Kazakhstan. All 3 eagles traveled south, flying on average 25–108 km/d. Movement was nonrandom, with eagles generally traveling near mosaics of forest, open areas, and water, and rarely using areas with little vegetation. As the first study of movements of White-tailed Sea Eagles in arid Central Asia, this study provides insight into potential limiting factors and how these birds interact with their environment during long-distance movements.

Movements and landscape use of Eastern Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca in Central Asia

ABSTRACT Capsule: We describe ecological factors associated with movements of a globally declining raptor species, the Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca. Aims: To describe the movements, habitat associations and resource selection of Eastern Imperial Eagles marked in Central Asia. Methods: We used global positioning system (GPS) data sent via satellite telemetry devices deployed on Eastern Imperial Eagles captured in Kazakhstan to calculate distances travelled and to associate habitat and weather variables with eagle locations collected throughout the annual cycle. We also used resource selection models to evaluate habitat use of tracked birds during autumn migration. Separately, we used wing-tagging recovery data to broaden our understanding of wintering locations of eagles. Results: Eagles tagged in Kazakhstan wintered in most countries on the Arabian Peninsula, as well as Iran and India. The adult eagle we tracked travelled more efficiently than did the four pre-adults. During autumn migration, telemetered eagles used a mixture of vegetation types, but during winter and summer, they primarily used bare and sparsely vegetated areas. Finally, telemetered birds used orographic updrafts to subsidize their autumn migration flight, but they relied on thermal updrafts during spring migration. Conclusion: Our study is the first to use GPS telemetry to describe year-round movements and habitat associations of Eastern Imperial Eagles in Central Asia. Our findings provide insight into the ecology of this vulnerable raptor species that can contribute to conservation efforts on its behalf.