F.C. Velkers

Outbreak of avian influenza H7N3 on a turkey farm in the Netherlands

This case report describes the course of an outbreak of avian influenza on a Dutch turkey farm. When clinical signs were observed their cause remained unclear. However, serum samples taken for the monitoring campaign launched during the epidemic of highly pathogenic avian influenza in 2003, showed that all the remaining turkeys were seropositive against an h7 strain of avian influenza virus, and the virus was subsequently isolated from stored carcases. The results of a reverse-transcriptase pcr showed that a h7n3 strain was involved, and it was characterised as of low pathogenicity. However, its intravenous pathogenicity index was 2·4, characterising it as of high pathogenicity, suggesting that a mixture of strains of low and high pathogenicity may have been present in the isolate. The outbreak remained limited to three farms.

Quantification of Eimeria acervulina in faeces of broilers: Comparison of McMaster oocyst counts from 24 h faecal collections and single droppings to real-time PCR from cloacal swabs

Coccidiosis is an economically important disease in chickens, caused by infection with Eimeria species parasites. Diagnosis of coccidiosis is frequently based on oocyst enumeration in pooled faecal samples or litter. In studies on infection dynamics and for monitoring in the field, samples from individual chickens may be more appropriate as these support the determination of infection status of individual birds and more accurately reflect oocyst output at time of sampling. Faecal samples from individual birds can be collected, but the counting procedure limits the number of samples that can be processed and unequivocal microscopic differentiation between Eimeria species is very difficult. A test that overcomes these drawbacks would improve efficiency and quality of the diagnosis. The aim of this study was to compare two methods for Eimeria oocyst quantification in samples from individual birds. A real-time PCR that quantifies oocysts in cloacal swabs (qPCR) and oocyst counts in single droppings were compared to the standard procedure of oocyst counts in bulked 24h faeces. Faecal samples were collected daily from 30 broiler chickens, inoculated with different doses of Eimeria acervulina. The three techniques produced comparable oocyst counts for all inoculation doses. Single dropping counts are applicable for small sample sizes and when a single Eimeria species is used. For larger sample sizes qPCR is preferable as it can be carried out on samples that have been frozen for storage. Furthermore, qPCR can identify and quantify different Eimeria species, which makes it a valuable diagnostic tool for field or experimental work.

Transmissibility of Infectious Bronchitis Virus H120 Vaccine Strain among Broilers under Experimental Conditions

Abstract The aim of this study was to quantify transmission of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) H120 vaccine strain among broilers, and to assess whether birds that have been exposed to vaccine strain-shedding birds were protected against clinical signs after infection with a virulent strain of the same serotype. A transmission experiment and a replicate were carried out, each with six groups of commercial broilers. At day of hatch (n  =  30) or at 15 days of age (n  =  20), half of each group was inoculated with either IBV H120 vaccine (H120 group), virulent IBV M41 (M41 group), or were mock-infected, thereby contact-exposing the other half of each group. Nasal discharge was recorded, and antibody response and virus shedding were measured. To measure clinical protection, four weeks after inoculation all birds, in all groups, were challenged with IBV M41. The reproduction ratio (R; the average number of contact infections caused by one infectious bird) was determined to quantify virus transmission. All contact-exposed birds, except for one in an H120 group, became infected with either IBV H120 or IBV M41. Almost all birds contact-infected with IBV H120 or IBV M41 were subsequently protected against clinical signs after challenge with IBV M41. The lower limits of the 95% confidence interval (CI) of the R of IBV H120 vaccine, and of IBV M41, were significantly <1. For both IBV H120 and IBV M41, the 95% CI was [2.1–∞] following inoculation at day of hatch and [1.8–∞] after inoculation at 15 days of age. This finding demonstrates that IBV H120 vaccine is able to spread extensively among broilers. This implies that this vaccine strain might be able to become endemically present in the poultry population. It also implies that, even if not all birds received vaccine during spray application, due to the ability of the vaccine to spread in the flock, they will most likely be protected against clinical signs after a subsequent field virus infection. Transmisibilidad de la cepa vacunal H120 de bronquitis infecciosa entre pollos de engorde bajo condiciones experimentales. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue cuantificar la transmisión de la cepa vacunal H120 de bronquitis infecciosa entre pollos de engorde y evaluar si las aves que han sido expuestas a aves diseminando la cepa vacunal del virus, estaban protegidas contra los signos clínicos luego de un desafío con una cepa virulenta perteneciente al mismo serotipo. Se realizó un experimento de transmisión viral y una réplica, cada uno con seis grupos de pollos de engorde comerciales. Al día de edad (n  =  30) o a los 15 días de edad (n  =  20) la mitad de cada grupo se inoculó con la vacuna H120 (grupo H120), con virus virulento de bronquitis infecciosa cepa M41 (grupo M41) o no fueron infectadas, en consecuencia exponiendo por contacto a la otra mitad de cada grupo. Se llevó registro de las descargas nasales y se midió la respuesta de anticuerpos y la diseminación del virus. Cuatro semanas después de la inoculación, todas las aves se desafiaron con la cepa virulenta de bronquitis infecciosa M41 para evaluar la protección clínica. Cuantificando la transmisión del virus, se determinó la tasa de reproducción (promedio de infecciones por contacto causadas por un ave infecciosa). Todas las aves expuestas por contacto, excepto una en el grupo H120, se infectaron con el virus H120 o M41. Casi todas las aves expuestas por contacto con el virus H120 o con M41mostraron protección contra signos clínicos luego de un desafío con la cepa M41 de bronquitis infecciosa. Los limites inferiores de los intervalos de confianza 95% de la tasa de reproducción de la vacuna H120 y del virus M41 fueron significantes <1. Para ambos virus el intervalo de confianza 95% fue [2.1–∞] luego de la inoculación al día de edad y [1.8–∞] después de la inoculación a los 15 días de edad. Este hallazgo demuestra que la vacuna de bronquitis infecciosa H120 es capaz de diseminarse ampliamente entre pollos de engorde. Esto implica que la vacuna puede tornarse endémica en la población avícola. Esto a su vez implica que si no todas las aves recibieron vacuna durante la aplicación por aspersión, debido a la capacidad de la vacuna de diseminarse en el parvada, estas aves probablemente esten protegidas contra signos clinicos luego de una infeccion viral en el campo. Abbreviations: CI = confidence interval; HI = hemagglutination inhibiting; IB = infectious bronchitis; IBV = infectious bronchitis virus; MLE = maximum likelihood estimate; R = reproduction ratio

Oocyst output and transmission rates during successive infections with Eimeria acervulina in experimental broiler flocks

The infection dynamics of Eimeria species determine the clinical manifestation of the disease coccidiosis in poultry flocks, and a better understanding of the dynamics may contribute to improvement of control measures. Our aim was to study the course of infection and the transmission of Eimeria acervulina in groups of broilers by quantifying the transmission rate parameter and oocyst output. Three transmission experiments were carried out with groups of 20 male SPF broilers. At 2 days of age, one bird in each trial was orally inoculated with five sporulated E. acervulina oocysts (D0 post-inoculation, pi). One day after inoculation (D1 pi), the inoculated bird was housed with 19 non-inoculated contact birds. Individual faecal droppings were examined daily from D3-D32 pi to quantify the number of oocysts per gram faeces. The inoculated bird started shedding oocysts at D5 pi and contact birds between D10 and D17 pi. Contact birds that became infected due to oocyst excretion by the inoculated bird were characterized as first generation contact birds (C1). Contact birds excreting from D15 pi onwards (C2) became infected after the first C1 birds had started shedding and were considered to belong to a successive generation of the flock infection. Oocyst output was significantly lower for C1 compared to C2 birds, but the transmission rate parameter remained constant for both infection generations. These results suggest that although oocyst load increases, the transmission rate of E. acervulina remains constant between successive generations of infection in a flock.

Transmission of a live Eimeria acervulina vaccine strain and response to infection in vaccinated and contact-vaccinated broilers

Live vaccines for coccidiosis control are infrequently used in broilers, mainly due to variability in efficacy and relatively high costs. More insight in transmission of vaccine and wild-type strains can facilitate optimization of vaccination strategies and might increase its use as an alternative for anticoccidial drugs. The aim of this study was to quantify transmission of a live Eimeria acervulina vaccine strain and to determine the degree of protection against a subsequent infection with a wild-type E. acervulina strain. An experiment was carried out with 4 groups of 22 SPF broilers. At 2 days of age, 11 birds of groups 2 to 4 were vaccinated directly by oral application of E. acervulina oocysts of the Paracox™ vaccine and 11 birds were placed in contact with these birds (contact-vaccinated). Birds in group 1 remained unvaccinated (controls) and were not exposed to vaccinated birds. At day 28 of age, 6 groups of 10 birds were formed, with 2 groups (duplo) for each treatment group, i.e. vaccinated, contact-vaccinated or unvaccinated control birds. Five birds of each group were orally inoculated with wild-type E. acervulina oocysts and five were contact-exposed. Single droppings were examined daily from days 5 to 49 of age for oocyst output and to determine the time of infection. The transmission rate of the vaccine strain was estimated to be 1.6 per day and of the wild-type strain 2.3, 8.7 and 20.8 per day for vaccinated, contact-vaccinated and unvaccinated birds, respectively. Although transmission of wild-type coccidia was not significantly reduced in vaccinated or contact-vaccinated groups, both groups were equally protected against high oocyst output after infection compared to unvaccinated groups. These results suggest that factors influencing transmission of live vaccine strains in flocks may be important targets for improvement of vaccine efficacy and warrant further research.

Enterococcus hirae-associated endocarditis outbreaks in broiler flocks: clinical and pathological characteristics and molecular epidemiology.

Background: Enterococcus hirae-associated endocarditis, characterized by a peak in mortality during the second week of the grow-out, and occasionally lameness, was diagnosed at Dutch broiler farms. Objectives: Field cases were studied to increase knowledge on clinical and pathological characteristics, pathogenesis and epidemiology of these infections. Animals and methods. In total, 1266 birds of 25 flocks from 12 farms were examined. Post-mortem examinations, bacteriology, histopathology, PCR and DNA fingerprinting was carried out. Six flocks were followed longitudinally (n = 1017 birds). Results: Average mortality was 4.1% for the entire grow-out, of which 36% was attributed to endocarditis. Fibrinous thromboendocarditis of the right atrioventricular (AV) valve was found in 24% of hearts, compared to 7% and 4% with lesions of left and both AV valves, respectively. Thrombotic lesions were found in 24% (n = 432) of lungs, but only in larger branches of the Arteria pulmonalis. Occasionally, thrombi were found in the Arteria ischiadica externa and in liver and brain vessels. Enterococcus was cultured from 54% (n = 176) of heart and in 75% (n = 28), 62% (n = 106) and 31% (n = 16) of liver, bone marrow and lung samples, respectively. Further identification, using the Rapid ID Strep 32 API system and a PCR targeting mur-2 and mur-2ed genes was carried out on a subset of Enterococcus positive isolates (n = 65): both techniques identified the isolates as Enterococcus hirae. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis did not indicate evidence of clonality between farms and flocks. Conclusions: The relevance of these findings for pathogenesis and epidemiology of E. hirae infections is discussed. Clinical importance. This study may facilitate diagnosis of field cases and may contribute to the design of further research and development of control measures.

Eimeria acervulina: the influence of inoculation dose on transmission between broiler chickens.

The course and clinical appearance of an Eimeria species infection in chicken flocks depend on the response of an individual bird to infection and on population-dynamics of the infection in the flock. Differences in ingested numbers of oocysts may affect oocyst load in the flock and the subsequent infectious dose for not yet infected birds. To study the link between numbers of oocysts excreted by infected birds and transmission of Eimeria acervulina, experiments were carried out with 42 pairs of broiler chickens using inoculation doses with 5, 50, 500 or 50,000 sporulated oocysts. In each pair one bird was inoculated and the other bird was contact-exposed. All contact birds became infected, which occurred on average within 34h after exposure to an inoculated bird. Although a higher inoculation dose resulted in higher oocyst excretion in inoculated and contact-infected birds, only small non-significant differences in transmission rates between groups were found.

Efficacy of allicin from garlic against Ascaridia galli infection in chickens

The use of garlic as a treatment against helminth infections is increasing in organic layer farms in several European countries. Its efficacy against these parasites, however, has not been demonstrated thus far. Therefore, a study was conducted to determine the efficacy of a commercially available garlic product consisting of a high concentration of allicin (i.e., the main active component of garlic) against experimentally induced Ascaridia galli infection in chickens. In total, 450 Lohmann LSL-Classic cockerels were used. Group 1, the uninfected, untreated group, consisted of 50 chickens. Groups 2 to 5, each consisting of approximately 100 chickens, were inoculated with 300 embryonated A. galli eggs/chicken at 6 wk of age. Group 2 was not treated, whereas groups 3 through 5 were given daily individual oral treatments from 13 wk of age onward. Group 3 received the recommended dose of allicin for 2 wk, whereas group 4 received a 10-fold dose of allicin. Group 5 was given 10 mg of flubendazole/kg of BW for 1 wk. Necropsy of 20 birds of all groups was performed weekly between 13 and 16 wk of age to determine adult worm loads. Group 1 remained free of A. galli. The experimental infection in the other groups resulted in a mean adult worm load of approximately 16 worms/bird. No significant differences were observed in worm counts of the allicin-treated groups (groups 3 and 4) compared with the infected, untreated group (group 2) at any week (P > 0.05). In contrast, no worms were found in chickens after flubendazole treatment (group 5). It was concluded that allicin does not represent an alternative to flubendazole for the treatment of A. galli infections in chickens.

The role of rodents in avian influenza outbreaks in poultry farms: a review

ABSTRACT Wild migratory birds are associated with global avian influenza virus (AIV) spread. Although direct contact with wild birds and contaminated fomites is unlikely in modern non-free range poultry farms applying biosecurity measures, AIV outbreaks still occur. This suggests involvement of other intermediate factors for virus transmission between wild birds and poultry. This review describes current evidence of the potential role of rodents in AIV transmission from wild birds to poultry and between poultry houses. Rodents can be abundant around poultry houses, share their habitat with waterfowl and can readily enter poultry houses. Survival of AIV from waterfowl in poultry house surroundings and on the coat of rodents suggests that rodents are likely to act as mechanical vector. AIVs can replicate in rodents without adaptation, resulting in high viral titres in lungs and nasal turbinates, virus presence in nasal washes and saliva, and transmission to naïve contact animals. Therefore, active AIV shedding by infected rodents may play a role in transmission to poultry. Further field and experimental studies are needed to provide evidence for a role of rodents in AIV epidemiology. Making poultry houses rodent-proof and the immediate surroundings unattractive for rodents are recommended as preventive measures against possible AIV introduction.

Dynamics of CMY-2 producing E. coli in a broiler parent flock

Extended-spectrum β-lactamase and plasmid mediated AmpC β-lactamase (ESBL/pAmpC) producing bacteria are resistant to Extended Spectrum Cephalosporins (ESC), and are present in all levels of the broiler production chain. We determined the prevalence, concentration, and persistence of ESBL/pAmpC-Escherichia coli in a broiler parent flock during the rearing and laying period. One-day old chickens were housed in four separate pens. Until week 33 no antibiotics or coccidiostatics were used. During rearing 57 chickens in each pen (n=228), and in the laying period two groups of 33 chickens were individually sampled (n=66). Environmental samples were taken from week 16 onwards. ESBL/pAmpC-E. coli presence was determined by selective culturing. In the samples of week 16-19 the concentration of ESBL/pAmpC-E. coli was determined. All ESC-resistant isolates found were positive for pAmpC gene blaCMY-2 located on IncA/C plasmids, in several E. coli MLST types. CMY-2-E. coli prevalence decreased from 91% (95%CI 86-94%) at day 7 (week 1) to 0% (95%CI 0-5%) in week 21. However, CMY-2-E. coli remained present in the environmental samples during the whole study. CMY-2-E. coli concentration varied between detection limit (<10^3) and 2·10^4 cfu/g faeces. The sharp reduction of CMY-2-E. coli in this broiler parent flock in absence of antibiotics suggests a selective disadvantage of blaCMY-2 on IncA/C plasmids on animal level. The underlying mechanism should be studied further as this may provide new insights on how to reduce ESBL/pAmpC prevalence and transmission in the broiler production chain.