F. Grasso

Effect of climate on the response to three oestrous synchronisation techniques in lactating dairy cows

The reproductive efficiency of Friesian dairy cows was investigated in a three (oestrous synchronisation technique) x two (seasons of the year) factorial design. The 90 primiparous and multiparous cows (winter, n=42; summer, n=48) were allocated at random to three synchronisation treatments (n=30 cows per treatment). In treatment 1 (GPG), the cows were administered 15 mg PGF(2alpha) i.m. at 30 +/- 3 days postpartum, 100 microg GnRH i.m. at 51 +/- 3 days and 15 mg PGF(2alpha) 7 days later. A second 100 microg dose of GnRH was given after, further 2 days and fixed time AI occurred 16-20 h later. In treatment 2 (PG-PG), 15 mg PGF(2alpha) was administered i.m. to each cow on three occasions at successive 14 days interval starting at 30 +/- 3 days postpartum and the cows were inseminated at observed oestrus following the third dose of PGF(2alpha). Cows in treatment 3 (PG) had a single administration of 15 mg PGF(2alpha) i.m. at 57+/-3days postpartum and were inseminated as in treatment 2. Mean daily ambient temperature was 10.9 degrees C in winter (November-March) and 20.2 degrees C in summer (June-October). The cows were confined in an open-fronted shed and had ad libitum access to a complete diet with a 37:63 forage to concentrate ratio. Body condition score was assessed at 57 +/- 3 days postpartum. Cow rectal temperature at insemination, milk yield, reproductive data and climatic variables were recorded. Blood samples were collected for progesterone assay on days 4, 11, 18, 25, 32, 39 and 46 post-AI from 54 of the cows (19 GPG; 17 PG-PG; 18 PG). Pregnancy rate to first AI was 36.7% (11/30) for GPG and 16.7% (5/30) for both PG-PG and PG treatments. The difference was not significant. The cumulative pregnancy rate after third AI were GPG 83.3% (25/30), PG-PG 60.0% (18/30) and PG 60.0% (18/30; P<0.057). The cumulative pregnancy rate for cows inseminated in the winter (81.0%; 34/42) was higher (P<0.01) than for those inseminated in the summer (56.3%; 27/48). The interval from calving to first service was shorter (P<0.05) in treatment PG-PG (65.4+/-1.3 days) than in PG (69.2+/-1.3 days). Mean plasma progesterone concentrations post-AI of pregnant cows were higher (P<0.001) for GPG cows than those for PG-PG and PG cows. Plasma progesterone levels of pregnant cows tended to be higher (P=0.087) in winter than in summer. In conclusion, although the cumulative pregnancy rate was higher for GPG cows, it may be appropriate to correct the nutrition and management of the herd before resorting to synchronisation techniques to improve animal reproductive performances.

Positive indicators of cattle welfare and their applicability to on-farm protocols

Abstract Most of the research on animal welfare has focused on the negative aspects of the matter including an array of stress categories, whereas little has been done about the positive states of well being. The present study aims to describe indicators of positive animal welfare suitable for on-farm assessment. Appropriate environmental stimulation favours good welfare and, in an adequately enriched environment, positive indicators of welfare such as play behaviour tend to be more common. In addition, animals are motivated to perform these behaviours only if their primary needs are satisfied. In cattle, beneficial effects of social licking have been observed with positive correlation between being licked vs. milk production and weight gain, respectively. Ruminants are gregarious and a high degree of synchronisation within the herd may indicate a positive welfare state, in particular for subordinate animals. They may be able to meet their basic feeding and resting requirements performing these behaviours when the competition for a particular resource is low, however their welfare state would be improved if they could choose when and where (i.e. along with the other members of the group) to perform such behaviours. Due to the reduced applicability (mainly young animals), low feasibility (time consuming) and lack of research on reliability, play behaviour, albeit of proven validity, does not appear to be suitable for a rapid implementation in a welfare assessment scheme. Social licking is rarely expressed and its detection may be time consuming and scarcely feasible. Although validity and reliability need more studies, behaviour synchrony seems to be a promising positive welfare indicator as the instantaneous scan sampling technique makes this indicator easily applicable. Recently, a new methodology called “qualitative assessment of animal behaviour” has been developed. The method relies on a number of terms which are freely generated by observers. Thus, when positive aspects are observed they can be rated on a quantitative scale. Because of its high inter- and intra-observer reliability, this method appears to be the most promising.

On-farm welfare assessment in dairy cattle and buffaloes: evaluation of some animal-based parameters

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate the repeatability of some animal related variables, which could be used in protocols developed for assessing animal welfare at farm level. Recordings were performed in seven dairy farms (four for cattle and three for buffaloes). The animals were observed on three occasions at three-week intervals. The variables collected for each animal were the following: behaviour during milking (stepping and kicking), avoidance distance, lameness and cleanliness. For each farm and each variable repeatability was computed using the Kendall coefficient of concordance (W). In buffalo farms avoidance distance may be considered highly reliable (W > 0.64), whereas in dairy cattle its reliability ranged from medium (W = 0.43 to 0.59) to high (W = 0.64). Behavioural recordings at milking showed that the reliability of stepping was either medium or high for both buffaloes and cattle (W = 0.51 to 0.66 and W = 0.52 to 0.76 for buffaloes and cattle, respectively). Conversely, kicking was less reliable. In cattle farms the reliability for cleanliness ranged from medium (W = 0.51) to high (W = 0.62 to 0.71), whereas, it was not reliable in the sole buffalo farm where this variable was monitored. In cattle farms, the concordance for lameness score was high in two farms (W = 0.62 and 0.66) and moderate in one farm (W = 0.43), whereas no animals displayed lameness in the fourth farm. In all buffalo farms no animals showed lameness. For each species, the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance with one factor (farm) was performed to evaluate the effect of farm on recorded variables. For cattle, avoidance distance (P<0.001), stepping (P<0.001), cleanliness (P<0.001) and lameness (P<0.01) were affected by farm, whereas kicking was not significantly different between farms. In buffaloes a significant effect of farm was observed only for avoidance distance (P<0.01). The Mann-Whitney U test performed on data obtained from the farm where both species were present showed that avoidance distance was lower in buffaloes than cattle (P<0.001). This variable is reliable, feasible and able to discriminate among farms. Lameness and cleanliness scores were able to discriminate only cattle farms, whereas these two parameters, albeit feasible, seem to have low significance for buffaloes. Although stepping during milking was reliable and different among cattle farms, its use in on-farm assessment may be difficult because it is more time consuming, thus less feasible.

Influence of space allowance on the welfare of weaned buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) calves

Twenty weaned female buffalo calves were used to evaluate the effect of space allowance in relation to their body surface area on a range of behavioural and physiological parameters. Body surface area in m2 was calculated as 0.12 body weight0.60. Ten calves received 50% of body surface as space allocation (Group 50), 10 others received 90% of body surface area (Group 90). Animals in Group 50 lay with a lower number of outstretched legs than calves in Group 90. Buffaloes from Group 50 were observed standing more frequently than animals from Group 90 (P<0.001). The proportions of idling (P<0.01) and lying idle observations (P<0.001) were higher for Group 90 than for Group 50. Group 90 performed a higher number of non-agonistic interactions than Group 50 (P<0.01), whereas the opposite was observed for the number of agonistic interactions (P<0.01). When exposed to open field testing, Group 50 animals displayed an increased duration of movement, number of galloping events and more vocalisation. Neither immune responses to phytohemagglutinin and ovalbumin nor the cortisol response to exogenous ACTH were affected by treatment. It was concluded that 50% of body surface area may be an inadequate space allowance for weaned calves.

Entrance order and side preference of dairy cows in the milking parlour

Abstract Sixty-seven multiparous (group M) and 79 primiparous (group P) Friesian cows were used to assess the consistency of the order of entry and the preference for a determinate side into the milking parlour. The Kendall’s coefficient of concordance showed a constancy of the entrance order into milking parlour for both primiparous and multiparous subjects (0.36, P<0.001). In primiparous cows milk yield was significantly correlated to entrance order (rs=0.22, n=79, P<0.05) and tended to be correlated to SCC (rs=0.25, n=43, P<0.10). In group M, 19 cows out of 67 (28.3%) preferred the right side of the milking parlour, whereas the other 48 (71.7%) showed no preference for one of the two sides. In group P, 8 out of 79 (10.1%) cows chose the right side, 10 the left side (12.7%) and the remaining 61 (77.2%) indifferently used the right or left positions of the milking parlour. We conclude that management practices that disturb entrance order and/or side choice should be avoided in order to minimise stress during farming routines.

On the development of a monitoring scheme of buffalo welfare at farm level

Abstract In the present review some animal-related indicators, possibly relevant for a monitoring scheme of buffalo cow welfare at the farm level, are suggested. The indicators are discussed on the basis of their validity (meaningful with respect to animal welfare), reliability (reflecting the tendency to give the same results on repeated measurements) and feasibility (concerning time and money consume). The attention was focused on the following indicators: excessive thinning or fattening assessed with Body Condition Score (BCS) systems; cleanliness; lameness; resting, social, oral abnormal behaviours; injuries; stockmanship; animal-human relationship; positive indicators (diversity of lying postures, allogrooming, etc.). We have concluded that some of the indicators validated for cattle could be conveniently applied to buffaloes without changes (e.g. injuries and avoidance distance), while others should be appropriately adjusted to this species (e.g. BCS, cleanliness, housing factors). In addition, further studies are needed either to find reliable and feasible registration methods for some indicators (e.g. aggressive and resting behaviours) or to identify additional parameters specific for buffaloes (e.g. prevalence of buffalo cows injected with oxytocin during milking as an indicator of the quality of human-animal relationship).

Influence of housing conditions and calving distance on blood metabolites in water buffalo cows

Abstract The aim of this study was to evaluate whether housing conditions allowing the animals to lie in the mud and perform more physical exercise can negatively affect reserve mobilization and milk production. In addition, the effect of calving distance on blood metabolites was assessed. The experiment was conducted on twenty-eight lactating buffalo cows, equally allocated to two treatments. Fourteen cows were group-housed in a loose open-sided barn with a concrete floor and equipped with self-locking stanchions, where they received 10 m2/head of space allowance, as in intensive systems (Group IS). Fourteen others were group-housed in a similar barn but they also had the benefit of an outdoor yard with 500 m2/head as space allowance, including spontaneous vegetation and potholes for bathing and wallowing, as in traditional systems (Group TS). Animals were included in the experimental groups 5 days after calving. Daily milk yield, and milk fat, protein and somatic cell content were determined 4 weeks after grouping (about 35 days after calving) and then at monthly intervals (5 recordings). Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein in vacuum tubes 10 days after grouping (i.e. 15 days after calving) and then at 10 day intervals (17 collections). After centrifugation, plasma and serum aliquots were frozen stored until metabolite determinations (glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, NEFA, urea, creatinine, albumins, total proteins, calcium, phosphorus, bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase and γglutamyl transferase). Treatment did not affect daily milk yield and milk fat, protein or somatic cell count content. Blood metabolite levels were not affected by treatment and interaction treatment x time. Conversely, as expected, calving distance had an influence on most of these variables (P<0.05÷0.001). In particular, in the first two months after parturition, glucose concentration decreased, whereas NEFA and cholesterol increased as a consequence of the high energetic requirements of animals in the first stage of lactation. The systems that allow the expression of some basic natural behaviour did not have any detrimental effect on buffalo metabolism and production, thus they should be encouraged.

Influence of Flavor on Goat Feeding Preferences

Goat feeding preferences for straw pellets flavored with ryegrass (Lolium perenne, cv. Belida) or white clover (Trifolium repens, cv. Huia) aromatic extracts, obtained by means of a cold aromatic extraction method, were assessed with cafeteria trials. Prior to the trials, odor differences between the two plant species, the two aromatic extracts, and the straw pellets sprayed with the two aromatic extracts were verified using sensory analysis performed by 30 human panelists. Since odor differences observed among fresh samples were still detectable in aromatic extracts and moistened pellets, the extraction method was considered effective in reproducing plant odors. Straw pellets sprayed with either distilled water (W) or ryegrass (R) or clover (C) aromatic extracts were used to assess flavor preferences of 12 female Rossa Mediterranea goats. Sprayed pellet preference was evaluated in two sessions conducted in two consecutive weeks. Each session consisted of three two-choice presentations performed on three consecutive days. In both sessions, food intake, proportion of food intake, time spent feeding, and proportion of time spent feeding were significantly affected by pellet type (0.05 > P > 0.001). In particular, straw pellets sprayed with ryegrass extract were highly selected compared to those sprayed with clover (0.01 > P > 0.001) or water (0.01 > P > 0.001). In addition, in the second session, the clover extract was preferred to distilled water (0.05 > P > 0.01). The results of this study gave two main indications: first, goat selectivity for ryegrass against clover was consistent even when straw pellets sprayed with odors of these plants were offered, and secondly, the addition of aromatic extracts to straw pellets increased the preference for pellets.

The behaviour and welfare of buffaloes ( Bubalus bubalis ) in modern dairy enterprises

This review deals with the behaviour of river buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), in confinement and in extensive conditions, also focusing on the effects of different housing and rearing conditions on their welfare. The behavioural repertoire expressed by buffaloes in extensive and intensive conditions is similar to those displayed by other domestic ruminants. However, through natural selection, buffaloes have also acquired several morphological, physiological and behavioural (i.e. wallowing) adaptations to hot climatic conditions. Buffaloes kept in intensive conditions and having no access to pasture and water for wallowing extend their periods of idling and are less often involved in investigative activities. Confinement is also associated with a reduction of space; however, no specific studies have been carried out to determine the specific requirements of this species. Space restriction can adversely affect various aspects of buffalo welfare, such as health (increased levels of lesions and injuries), social behaviour (increased number of agonistic interactions) and heat dissipation. The buffaloes, originating from tropical areas, are well adapted to large variations in food availability and quality, and to dietetic unbalances. As to human animal relationship, it has been observed that the incidence of stepping and kicking behaviour of buffaloes in the milking parlour is positively correlated with the frequency of oxytocin injections, whereas the frequency of positive stockperson interactions with the animals such as talking quietly, petting and gentle touching are negatively correlated with the number of kicks during milking. Data from farms where both dairy cattle and buffaloes are present show that avoidance distance measured in the pen is lower in buffaloes than in cattle. This may be attributed to the fact that buffaloes are generally recognised to be curious animals. Finally, the effects of different farming practices on animal-related indicators are described. However, these measures should be integrated into a monitoring protocol, such as the Welfare Quality® scheme, to reliably assess buffalo welfare in the current intensive farming conditions.

The welfare of dairy buffalo

Abstract The present paper addresses the issue of buffalo welfare. Firstly, the biological characteristics and behavioural needs of buffalo are considered. Subsequently, the effects of intensive farming and some animal-related indicators, to be used for a monitoring scheme of buffalo welfare at farm level, are described. The attention was focused on the following indicators: excessive thinning or fattening assessed with Body Condition Score (BCS) systems; cleanliness (the presence of mud may be considered positively, whereas a thick and compact layer of dung may be regarded negatively); health status (lameness, hoof overgrowth, injuries, etc.); social, aggressive, oral abnormal behaviours; animal-human relationship (avoidance distance at manger); positive indicators (qualitative assessment of behaviour, etc.); housing factors. The indicators are discussed on the basis of their validity (meaningful with respect to animal welfare), reliability (reflecting the tendency to give the same results on repeated measurements) and feasibility (concerning time and money consumed). For some aspects, the differences between buffalo and dairy cattle are also highlighted.