F. Korthagen

Linking Theory and Practice: Changing the Pedagogy of Teacher Education

The pressure towards more school-based teacher education programs, visible in many countries, creates a need to rethink the relationship between theory and practice. The traditional application-of-theory model appears to be rather ineffective and is currently being replaced by other, more reflective approaches. However, until now the variety of different notions and assumptions underlying these new approaches have not provided a sound basis for further development. Two related theoretical bases are presented for a new paradigm in teacher education. The first uses the concepts of episteme and phronesis to introduce a new way of framing relevant knowledge. The second is a more holistic way of describing the relationship between teacher cognition and teacher behavior, leading to a model of three levels in learning about teaching, the Gestalt level, the schema level and the theory level, which are illustrated by interview data. Building on these two theoretical, frameworks, a so-called “realistic approach” to teacher education is introduced. The teacher educators role within this approach is analyzed as well as organizational consequences. First evaluative results are presented.

Levels in reflection: core reflection as a means to enhance professional growth

Reflection is currently a key concept in teacher education. The reflection process is often described in terms of a cyclical model. In the present article, we explain how such a model can be used for supporting student teachers’ reflection on practical situations they are confronted with, and on their behaviour, skills and beliefs in such situations. In some cases, however, more fundamental issues appear to influence teachers’ practical functioning. For example, their self‐concept can have a decisive influence on the way they function, or they may do what is expected of them, and yet not feel truly involved. In such cases, a more fundamental form of reflection is needed, which in this article we refer to as ‘core reflection’. The focus on core reflection concurs with the recent emphasis in psychology on attending to people’s strengths rather than their deficiencies.

Can Teacher Education Make a Difference

Occupational socialization in schools is a known factor counteracting attempts at educating innovative teachers. In this study, findings are reported from a longitudinal study conducted among 357 students, 128 cooperating teachers, and 31 university supervisors from 24 graduate teacher education programs. Quantitative survey data as well as in-depth qualitative data were collected over a period of 4.5 years. Development of teaching competence was followed from candidates’ enrollment until their third year as in-service teachers. Occupational socialization in schools was demonstrated to have a considerable influence on the development of graduates’ in-service competence. However, evidence was also produced for an impact of specific characteristics of the teacher education programs studied involving the integration of practical experience and theoretical study. Implications of these findings for the design of teacher education programs and the conduct of teacher education research are discussed.

The Relationship Between Theory and Practice: Back to the Classics

During the 20th century, scholarly thinking has been dominated by a strong inequality between theory and practice. Abstract knowledge was considered to be of a higher standing and of more value than concrete skills or the tacit knowledge of good performance. Much of the educational research concentrated on theory formation, both descriptive, for explanation, and prescriptive, for behavioral instructions. Consequently, educationalists in different subjects and professions were confronted with the problem of bridging the gap between theory and practice, a task that never seemed to succeed. During the past few decades, this problem has been analyzed in such different fields as education (Schoen, Fenstermacher), anthropology (Geertz), epistemology (Rorty, Toulmin, Lyotard), and ethics (Nussbaum). In different ways, these scholars developed alternative models of knowledge. For the justification of such alternative models, several authors, especially in the philosophical domain, referred to the classical controversy between Platos and Aristotles conceptions of rationality (episteme versus phronesis). In this article, the characteristics of these different types of rationality are discussed, as are the consequences for teacher education of the shift from episteme to phronesis. A revaluation of practical knowledge will be proposed, as well as an alternative view of the relationship between theory and practice.

Two modes of reflection

Abstract Most conceptualizations of reflection and reflective teaching are based on logical and analytical ways of information processing during teaching. There are, however, other ways of interpreting data and making decisions in the classroom, which make use of ‘gestalts’ and seem to be located in the right hemisphere. A broader view on reflection and reflective teaching is proposed which includes the mental “mirroring” of these non-rational processes. Technical, psychological, and philosophical reasons for the underestimation of the latter type of reflection are discussed. Several techniques are described for the promotion of reflection on non-rational processes, such as the use of metaphors, drawing, or painting, making photographs, guided fantasies, and Kellys repertory grid. It is concluded that an integration of reflection on rational and non-rational processes is important for teachers.

Reflective Teaching and Preservice Teacher Education in the Netherlands

Development of an inquiry orientation among teachers is a common goal of preservice and inservice programs. In this article the author describes a teacher education program designed to promote a reflective perspective toward teaching. Theoretical underpinnings are briefly noted; program steps are described; and program feedback re sults are summarized. Implications for teacher education programming are then drawn.

Characteristics of Reflective Practitioners: towards an operationalization of the concept of reflection

Abstract This article reports about a research project on reflective teaching in a preservice teacher education program. The program is based on an explicit view of good teaching and a theory of mathematics education. Reflective teaching was conceptualized accordingly. Four studies were carried out: an initial overall evaluation, a longitudinal study into developmental processes in student teachers, a study into correlates of reflectivity as measured with the aid of a questionnaire, and a quasi‐experimental study into the effects of the program. These studies reveal a number of critical attributes and correlates of reflectivity, thus offering building blocks for a theory in which empirically based relationships are established between good teaching, the concept of reflection and characteristics of reflective practitioners.

How Teacher Education Can Make a Difference.

Many studies reveal a huge gap between theory and practice in teacher education, leading to serious doubts concerning the effectiveness of teacher education. In this paper, the causes of the gap between theory and practice are analysed. On this basis, and grounded in a three‐level model of teacher learning, the so‐called ‘realistic approach’ to teacher education has been developed. It takes the causes of the theory–practice divide into account, and shows a new direction in the pedagogy of teacher education. Several evaluative studies into the realistic approach will be summarised. They lead to significant conclusions about the need for careful programme design based on: (1) an elaborated view of the intended process of teacher learning; (2) specific pedagogical approaches; and (3) an investment in the quality of staff members. The conclusions and implications are put into an international perspective.

Experienced teachers' informal learning from classroom teaching

The purpose of this paper is to explore how experienced teachers learn informally, and more specifically, how they learn through the activities they undertake when teaching classes. Regarding these activities we studied four aspects: behaviour, cognition, motivation and emotion. During one year, data were collected through observations of and interviews with four experienced teachers. For the analysis we used Eraut’s distinction into three types of learning which differ in the degree of consciousness that is involved. We found several activities that represented each of these types of learning. The findings demonstrate how cognitive, affective, motivational and behavioural aspects are interrelated in classroom teaching and that learning from classroom teaching occurs at several levels of awareness. Hence, we argue that a theory of teacher learning should account for activities involved in the alignment of behaviour to plan and for the role of motivation and emotion. The findings suggest that fruitful development of the quality of teaching requires more attention for the relation between teachers’ cognition, emotion, motivation and behaviour, and for promoting teachers’ awareness of their implicit beliefs and behavioural tendencies.

Experience, theory, and practical wisdom in teaching and teacher education

In this contribution, we discuss what it means to be a professional teacher with practical wisdom, and how practical wisdom is related to theory and experience. These questions are especially relevant as nowadays, in many countries, teacher education becomes more school‐based. Building on theories on the functioning of the human mind in general, and teacher behavior in particular, the notions of practical wisdom, theory, and experience are connected in a triangular model. We elaborate on the idea that each element can be an entry point for practices in teacher education, which brings discussion on the relationship between theory and practice in teacher education into a broader perspective. Several pedagogical approaches are discussed which help to link practical wisdom, theory, and experience within teacher education programs.