Faith Critzer

Atmospheric Plasma Inactivation of Foodborne Pathogens on Fresh Produce Surfaces

A study was conducted to determine the effect of one atmosphere uniform glow discharge plasma (OAUGDP) on inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella, and Listeria monocytogenes on apples, cantaloupe, and lettuce, respectively. A five-strain mixture of cultured test organisms was washed, suspended in phosphate buffer, and spot inoculated onto produce (7 log CFU per sample). Samples were exposed inside a chamber affixed to the OAUGDP blower unit operated at a power of 9 kV and frequency of 6 kHz. This configuration allows the sample to be placed outside of the plasma generation unit while allowing airflow to carry the antimicrobial active species, including ozone and nitric oxide, onto the food sample. Cantaloupe and lettuce samples were exposed for 1, 3, and 5 min, while apple samples were exposed for 30 s, 1 min, and 2 min. After exposure, samples were pummeled in 0.1% peptone water-2% Tween 80, diluted, and plated in duplicate onto selective media and tryptic soy agar and incubated as follows: E. coli O157:H7 (modified eosin methylene blue) and Salmonella (xylose lysine tergitol-4) for 48 h at 37 degrees C, and L. monocytogenes (modified Oxford medium) at 48 h for 32 degrees C. E. coli O157:H7 populations were reduced by >1 log after 30-s and 1-min exposures and >2 log after a 2-min exposure. Salmonella populations were reduced by >2 log after 1 min. Three- and 5-min exposure times resulted in >3-log reduction. L. monocytogenes populations were reduced by 1 log after 1 min of exposure. Three- and 5-min exposure times resulted in >3- and >5-log reductions, respectively. This process has the capability of serving as a novel, nonthermal processing technology to be used for reducing microbial populations on produce surfaces.

Microbial ecology of foodborne pathogens associated with produce.

The recent recognition of fresh fruits and vegetables as major vehicles of foodborne illness has led to increased research on mechanisms by which enteric pathogens contaminate and persist on and in this non-host environment. Interactions between foodborne pathogens and plants as well among the naturally occurring microbial communities contribute to endophytic and epiphytic colonization. Scientific findings are just beginning to elucidate the mechanisms that contribute to colonization of produce. This review addresses current knowledge as well as future research needed to increase our understanding of the microbial ecology of enteric pathogens on fruits and vegetables.

Naturally Occurring Antimicrobials for Minimally Processed Foods

Natural antimicrobials are gaining increased interest from researchers and food manufacturers alike seeking to discover label-friendly alternatives to the widely implemented synthetic compounds. Naturally occurring antimicrobials can be applied directly to food to protect food quality, extend food shelf life by inhibiting or inactivating spoilage microorganisms, and improve food safety by inhibiting or inactivating food-borne pathogens. There are a great number of natural antimicrobials derived from animal, plant, and microbial sources. This manuscript reviews their efficacy against spoilage and pathogenic organisms, their methods of evaluation, and their application in various foods as well as the development of novel delivery systems and incorporation with other hurdles.

Real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction for the rapid detection of Salmonella using invA primers.

Recent outbreaks of Salmonella linked to fresh produce emphasize the need for rapid detection methods to help control the spread of disease. Reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) can detect the presence of mRNA (shorter half-life than DNA) with greater potential for detecting viable pathogens. The chromosomally located invA gene required for host invasion by Salmonella is widely used for detection of this pathogen by PCR. Detection of Salmonella was undertaken by real-time RT-PCR (rt-RT-PCR) using newly designed invA gene primers to develop a sensitive and specific assay. Salmonella serovars Typhimurium and Enteritidis were grown (7.68 log(10) CFU/mL) in Luria-Bertani broth overnight at 37 degrees C, and RNA was extracted, followed by rt-RT-PCR with and without SYBR green I and agarose gel electrophoresis. All experiments were replicated at least thrice. Detection for both serovars using traditional RT-PCR was lower ( approximately 10(5) CFU/mL) than rt-RT-PCR (10(3) CFU/mL) by gel electrophoresis. Melt curve analysis showed melt temperatures at 87.5 degrees C with Ct values from 12 to 15 for up to 10(3) CFU/mL and improved to 10(2) CFU/mL after further optimization. Further, addition of RNA internal amplification control constructed using in vitro transcription with a T7 RNA polymerase promoter, to the RT-PCR assay also gave detection limits of 10(2) CFU/mL. Cross-reactivity was not observed against a panel of 21 non-Salmonella bacteria. Heat-inactivated (autoclaved) Salmonella showed faint or no detection by rt-RT-PCR or gel electrophoresis. This method has potential to be applied for the detection of Salmonella serovars in fresh produce and the simultaneous detection of foodborne viral (RNA viruses) and bacterial pathogens in a multiplex format.

Self-emulsification of alkaline-dissolved clove bud oil by whey protein, gum arabic, lecithin, and their combinations.

Low-cost emulsification technologies using food ingredients are critical to various applications. In the present study, a novel self-emulsification technique was studied to prepare clove bud oil (CBO) emulsions, without specialized equipment or organic solvents. CBO was first dissolved in hot alkaline solutions, added at 1% v/v into neutral solutions with 1% w/v emulsifier composed of whey protein concentrate (WPC), gum arabic, lecithin, or their equal mass mixtures, and adjusted to pH 7.0. The self-emulsification process did not affect UV-vis absorption spectrum, reversed-phase HPLC chromatogram, or antimicrobial activity of CBO against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes Scott A, and Salmonella Enteritidis. The entrapment efficiency after extraction by petroleum ether was determined to be about 80%. Most emulsions were stable during 7 days of storage. Emulsions prepared with WPC had smaller particles, whereas emulsions prepared with emulsifier mixtures had more stable particle dimensions. The studied self-emulsification technique may find numerous applications in the preparation of low-cost food emulsions.

Formulating essential oil microemulsions as washing solutions for organic fresh produce production

Applications of plant-derived organic essential oils (EOs) as antimicrobials for post-harvest produce operations are limited by their low water solubility. To dissolve EOs in water, microemulsions were studied using two surfactants permitted for organic production, sucrose octanoate ester (SOE) and soy lecithin that were mixed at various mass ratios before dilution with water to 40% w/w. EOs were then mixed with the surfactant solution by hand shaking. Based on visual transparency, intermediate lecithin:SOE mass ratios favoured the formation of microemulsions, e.g., up to 4.0% clove bud oil at ratios of 2:8 and 3:7, and 4.0% cinnamon bark oil and 3.0% thyme oil at ratios of 2:8 and 1:9, respectively. Microemulsions with intermediate lecithin:SOE mass ratios had a relatively low viscosity and better ability to wet fresh produce surfaces. The microemulsions established in this work may be used as washing solutions to enhance the microbial safety of organic fresh produce.

Survival of Salmonella enterica in poultry feed is strain dependent

Feed components have low water activity, making bacterial survival difficult. The mechanisms of Salmonella survival in feed and subsequent colonization of poultry are unknown. The purpose of this research was to compare the ability of Salmonella serovars and strains to survive in broiler feed and to evaluate molecular mechanisms associated with survival and colonization by measuring the expression of genes associated with colonization (hilA, invA) and survival via fatty acid synthesis (cfa, fabA, fabB, fabD). Feed was inoculated with 1 of 15 strains of Salmonella enterica consisting of 11 serovars (Typhimurium, Enteriditis, Kentucky, Seftenburg, Heidelberg, Mbandanka, Newport, Bairely, Javiana, Montevideo, and Infantis). To inoculate feed, cultures were suspended in PBS and survival was evaluated by plating samples onto XLT4 agar plates at specific time points (0 h, 4 h, 8 h, 24 h, 4 d, and 7 d). To evaluate gene expression, RNA was extracted from the samples at the specific time points (0, 4, 8, and 24 h) and gene expression measured with real-time PCR. The largest reduction in Salmonella occurred at the first and third sampling time points (4 h and 4 d) with the average reductions being 1.9 and 1.6 log cfu per g, respectively. For the remaining time points (8 h, 24 h, and 7 d), the average reduction was less than 1 log cfu per g (0.6, 0.4, and 0.6, respectively). Most strains upregulated cfa (cyclopropane fatty acid synthesis) within 8 h, which would modify the fluidity of the cell wall to aid in survival. There was a weak negative correlation between survival and virulence gene expression indicating downregulation to focus energy on other gene expression efforts such as survival-related genes. These data indicate the ability of strains to survive over time in poultry feed was strain dependent and that upregulation of cyclopropane fatty acid synthesis and downregulation of virulence genes were associated with a response to desiccation stress.

Effect of alginate coatings with cinnamon bark oil and soybean oil on quality and microbiological safety of cantaloupe.

The quality and microbiological safety of cantaloupes can potentially be improved using antimicrobial coatings that are able to maintain effectiveness throughout storage. The objective of this work was to study the effect of coating mixtures containing sodium alginate and cinnamon bark oil (CBO) on the quality of cantaloupes and the survival of inoculated bacterial pathogens and naturally occurring yeasts and molds during ambient storage at 21 °C. Cantaloupes were dipped in mixtures containing 1% sodium alginate with or without 2% CBO and 0 or 0.5% soybean oil (SBO). Weight loss and total soluble solids content of the flesh were not significantly different among coating treatments. However, changes in color and firmness of cantaloupes were delayed to different extents after coating, most significantly for the CBO+SBO treatment. Cocktails of Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli O157:H7, or Listeria monocytogenes inoculated on cantaloupes were reduced to the detection limit (1.3 log CFU/cm(2)) and completely inhibited during the 15-day storage by the CBO+SBO treatment, while L. monocytogenes and S. enterica reached populations of 2.9 log CFU/cm(2) and 2.4 log CFU/cm(2), respectively, on cantaloupes coated with CBO alone. Antimicrobial coatings, especially with SBO, also reduced yeast and mold counts on cantaloupes by 2.6 log CFU/cm(2). SBO improved the retention of CBO during storage suggesting it is related to the enhancement of quality and microbiological safety. Findings demonstrated the potential of the antimicrobial coating system studied to improve microbiological safety and quality of cantaloupes.

Salmonella survival and differential expression of fatty acid biosynthesis-associated genes in a low-water-activity food

The purpose of this study was to investigate the difference in expression of fatty acid biosynthesis genes and survival of different serotypes of Salmonella when incubated in a low‐water‐activity (aw) food over a 14‐day period. Stationary cells of five strains of Salmonella enterica belonging to 3 different serovars (Typhimurium ATCC 2486, Enteritidis H4267, Tennessee ARI‐33, Tennessee S13952 and Tennessee K4643) were inoculated into granular sugar (aW = 0·50) and held aerobically over a 14‐day period at 25°C. Survival was determined by enumerating colonies on TSA and XLT‐4 plates at 0, 1, 3, 5, 7 and 14 days. Correspondingly, gene expression was evaluated for three selected genes involved in fatty acid biosynthesis and modification (fabA, fabD and cfa). After 14 days of incubation, the population was reduced from 2·29 to 3·36 log for all five strains. Salmonella Tennessee ARI‐33 and Salm. Tennessee K4643 displayed greater survival than Salm. Typhimurium and Salm. Enteritidis. The increased expression of the cfa gene (involved in cyclopropane fatty acid biosynthesis) over 14 days was found associated with strains with a lower survival rate. The fabA gene (involved in unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis) was observed up‐regulated for all strains for at least one sampling time and for Salm. Tennessee ARI‐33 for all time points tested, suggesting its potential role in enhancing Salmonella survival in low aw foods.

Transcription analysis of stx1, marA, and eaeA genes in Escherichia coli O157:H7 treated with sodium benzoate.

Expression of the multiple antibiotic resistance (mar) operon causes increased antimicrobial resistance in bacterial pathogens. The activator of this operon, MarA, can alter expression of >60 genes in Escherichia coli K-12. However, data on the expression of virulence and resistance genes when foodborne pathogens are exposed to antimicrobial agents are lacking. This study was conducted to determine transcription of marA (mar activator), stx1 (Shiga toxin 1), and eaeA (intimin) genes of E. coli O157:H7 EDL933 as affected by sodium benzoate. E. coli O157:H7 was grown in Luria-Bertani broth containing 0 (control) and 1% sodium benzoate at 37 degrees C for 24 h, and total RNA was extracted. Primers were designed for hemX (209 bp; housekeeping gene), marA (261 bp), and eaeA (223 bp) genes; previously reported primers were used for stx1. Tenfold dilutions of RNA were used in a real-time one-step reverse transcriptase PCR to determine transcription levels. All experiments were conducted in triplicate, and product detection was validated by gel electrophoresis. For marA and stx1, real-time one-step reverse transcriptase PCR products were detected at a 1-log-greater dilution in sodium benzoate-treated cells than in control cells, although cell numbers for each were similar (7.28 and 7.57 log CFU/ml, respectively). This indicates a greater (albeit slight) level of their transcription in treated cells than in control cells. No difference in expression of eaeA was observed. HemX is a putative uroporphyrinogen III methylase. The hemX gene was expressed at the same level in control and treated cells, validating hemX as an appropriate housekeeping marker. These data indicate that stx1 and marA genes could play a role in pathogen virulence and survival when treated with sodium benzoate, whereas eaeA expression is not altered. Understanding adaptations of E. coli O157:H7 during antimicrobial exposure is essential to better understand and implement methods to inhibit or control survival of this pathogen in foods.