Fara D. Goodwyn

Meta-analysis of PECS with individuals with ASD: investigation of targeted versus non-targeted outcomes, participant characteristics, and implementation phase.

The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) is a widely used picture/icon aided augmentative communication system designed for learners with autism and other developmental disorders. This meta-analysis analyzes the extant empirical literature for PECS relative to targeted (functional communication) and non-targeted concomitant outcomes (behavior, social skills, and speech) for learners with autism, learners with autism and intellectual disabilities and those with autism and multiple disabilities. Effect size analyses were done using the Improvement Rate Difference method, an advanced metric. Effect sizes were independently analyzed for targeted and non-targeted outcomes, student age, learner disability, and number of phases in the PECS protocol acquired by learners. Results supported the judgment that PECS is a promising intervention method. Analysis also revealed that functional communication outcomes associated with the PECS protocol were most impacted, that preschool children and those with autism generally showed the strongest training effects, and that in general students who advanced through the most PECS protocol phases had the best outcomes.

Efficacy of Point-of-View Video Modeling: A Meta-Analysis

Point-of-view video modeling (POV), a variation of video-based modeling interventions, involves creating a video exemplar from a first-person perspective. The advantage is a significant reduction in extraneous stimuli, as well as increased efficiency in production. However, the lack of systematic analysis to evaluate differential impact on targeted outcomes for individuals with disabilities limits the identification of the population for whom POV is most appropriate, as well as the most efficacious implementation procedure. Through meta-analysis of single-subject studies using POV to improve targeted outcomes, this study identifies differential effects of participant characteristics, implementation procedures, and targeted outcomes. Results of the systematic search reveal that POV has only been implemented with individuals with developmental disabilities or an autism spectrum disorder. Analysis yielded an overall improvement rate difference (IRD) effect size of .78 (83.4% confidence interval [CI] = [.76, .80]). Furthermore, age, disability, and implementation variables moderate outcomes. Areas of future research and implications for practice are discussed.

Efficacy of Handheld Electronic Visual Supports to Enhance Vocabulary in Children with ASD

Although electronic tools such as handheld computers have become increasingly common throughout society, implementation of such tools to improve skills in individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities has lagged in the professional literature. However, the use of visual scripts for individuals with disabilities, particularly those with autism spectrum disorders, has been demonstrated to be effective, though frequently in static formats. Thus, this study involved the implementation of an alternating-treatment design to investigate the effects of tablet computer-based visual scripts on vocabulary use in three 8- to 14-year-old children with autism. Results indicated that all the participants showed increased use of verbs or nouns with the treatment materials, all the participants required less invasive prompts as the project progressed, and one participant had mixed results in the spontaneous use of nouns, increasing in their use in treatment and nontreatment conditions.

Impacts of a PECS Instructional Coaching Intervention on Practitioners and Children with Autism

Abstract There is a growing research literature on the potential benefits of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) for individuals with autism; however few studies have investigated implementation of AAC within real-life contexts. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of training for practitioners in implementation of aided AAC, and to examine implementation of Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) in real-life contexts. In particular, this study involved the implementation of instructional coaching to increase opportunities offered by behavioral therapists for their preschool-aged clients to use PECS to make requests. Results indicated increases in therapist implementation of AAC and client use of AAC in trained contexts, with limited generalization to untrained contexts.

Pre-Session Satiation as a Treatment for Stereotypy During Group Activities

Individuals with developmental disabilities may engage in automatically reinforced behaviors that may interfere with learning opportunities. Manipulation of motivating operations has been shown to reduce automatically maintained behavior in some individuals. Considering behavioral indicators of satiation may assist in identifying the point at which an abolishing operation has begun to effect behavior. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of pre-session satiation of automatic reinforcement on subsequent levels of stereotypy and activity engagement during group activities for three males ages 5 to 13 years with developmental disabilities. Following functional analyses with analogue conditions, an alternating treatment design compared a pre-session access to stereotypy condition with a no-pre-session access condition prior to group activity sessions. Results indicated that pre-session satiation of the putative reinforcer produced by stereotypy was effective in decreasing stereotypy and increasing activity engagement during subsequent group activities for all participants. These findings add to the literature supporting the effectiveness of abolishing operations to decrease automatically maintained stereotypy.

The Use of Trial-Based Functional Analysis in Public School Classrooms for Two Students with Developmental Disabilities.

Analogue functional analyses are a well-researched means of determining behavioral function in research and clinical contexts. However, conducting analogue functional analyses in school settings can be problematic and may lead to inconclusive results. The purpose of this study was to compare the results of a trial-based functional analysis with analogue functional analysis conducted within public school classrooms. Two individuals with developmental disabilities participated. Trial-based functional analyses produced clear behavioral functions for both participants, whereas analogue functional analysis results were inconclusive. Implications for practice and future research are presented.

Impact of PECS tablet computer app on receptive identification of pictures given a verbal stimulus

Abstract Objective: The purpose of this brief report was to determine the effect on receptive identification of photos of a tablet computer-based augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) system with voice output. Methods: A multiple baseline single-case experimental design across vocabulary words was implemented. One participant, a preschool-aged boy with autism and little intelligible verbal language, was included in the study. Results: Although a functional relation between the intervention and the dependent variable was not established, the intervention did appear to result in mild improvement for two of the three vocabulary words selected. Conclusion: The authors recommend further investigations of the collateral impacts of AAC on skills other than expressive language.

Interaction of Participant Characteristics and Type of AAC with Individuals with ASD: A Meta-Analysis.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and complex communication needs often rely on augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) as a means of functional communication. This meta-analysis investigated how individual characteristics moderate effectiveness of three types of aided AAC: the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), speech-generating devices (SGDs), and other picture-based AAC. Effectiveness was measured via the Improvement Rate Difference. Results indicated that AAC has small to moderate effects on speech outcomes, and that SGDs appear to be most effective when considering any outcome measure with individuals with ASD without comorbid intellectual/developmental disorders (IDD). PECS appears to be most effective when considering any outcome measure with individuals with ASD and IDD. SGDs and PECS were the most effective type of AAC for preschoolers, when aggregating across outcome measures. No difference was found between systems for elementary-aged and older individuals.

Video Modeling and Video Feedback Interventions for Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

V ideo-based interventions (VBIs) provide individuals the opportunity to alter their behavior by observing others’ or their own behavior modeled on video (Bandura, 1969; Delano, 2007; Rayner, Denholm, & Sigafoos, 2009). VBIs can be implemented by practitioners using a variety of current technologies, such as computers, portable DVD players, personal digital assistants, smart phones, and tablet computers. In addition to their flexible modes of presentation, VBIs follow a positive (rather than punitive) instructional approach by allowing for frequent, consistent, and perfected demonstrations of desired behaviors (Ayres, Maguire, & McClimon, 2009; Charlop-Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000) in addition to the rare opportunity for individuals to view their behaviors as others see them. VBIs are well suited to working with a population of reluctant or resistant learners because of what they are and what they are not. They are videos: Videos and their modes of presentation (e.g., computers, iPads) are associated with recreation. This pairing of a recreational stimulus may provide some behavioral momentum for participation in the intervention. They are not worksheets or lectures: They lack learning history or punitive association, which may make them more acceptable. It would be unlikely that students feel negatively about tablet computer or video use, whereas certain task demands at school may be associated with failure or frustration (e.g., worksheets or group settings). Further, individuals most in need of behavioral intervention may prefer a VBI over extended interaction with educators and/or staff (Charlop-Christy et al., 2000), particularly individuals with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) who avoid social interaction or find it aversive. Two examples of VBIs include video modeling (VM) and video feedback (VF). VM consists of a participant watching a model on video perform a target behavior and then performing the modeled behavior him or herself (CharlopChristy et al., 2000). When a peer or adult is used as model, this is referred to as video modeling with other as model (VMO). When the participant watches a video using him or herself as the model, this is referred to as video self-modeling (VSM). Videos can be recorded from the viewpoint of an outside observer (third person) or from the vantage point of the participant (i.e., only the hands of the participant are shown performing a task); the latter is called point-of-view video modeling (POV). Minimal equipment or technological skill is needed for implementing VBI. Videos for modeling interventions can be produced by using a peer, adult, or the participant (if he or she is capable of demonstrating the desired behavior with or without prompting; the prompts are then edited out of the recording). A priori decisions need to be made about problem behavior, and a model must be secured. The implementer will either need to write a script for the selected model to perform (VMO or POV) or catch the participant engaged in the behavior targeted for improvement (VSM). Unless the video is recorded in one take, the video footage will need to be edited to develop a final product that displays a ‘‘perfect’’ model. VF may be more efficient and flexible than VM, two characteristics particularly appealing in an applied setting. VF procedures simply require the implementer to select a behavior targeted for improvement and record video of the participant in a setting in which the behavior is likely to occur. Subsequently, the participant and implementer review the video footage to evaluate the occurrence or nonoccurrence of targeted behaviors (Booth & Fairbank, 1983). This provides a unique opportunity for self-evaluation and behavioral accountability without interrupting ongoing tasks or social interactions. Video may be reviewed the same day it is recorded or at a later date at the convenience of the implementer or depending on the receptivity of the student. Procedural variations between VM and VF are mostly small but may indicate advantages of one procedure over another, possibly related to the characteristics of the target individual.