Ferdinando Febbraio

Changes in phenolic and enzymatic activities content during fruit ripening in two Italian cultivars of Olea europaea L.

Abstract During the ripening of two Italian cultivars of Olea europaea L. (Ascolana Tenera and Frantoio Seedling no. 17 (FS17)) we have identified a β-glucosidase activity that contributes to the oleuropein degradation during maturation as well as an esterase activity, whose trend during the ripening is hypothesised to be linked to the fatty acid biosynthesis involved later in the maturation of fruits. This activity, in fact, is involved in the estereolysis of C3 and C4 esters that supply acetyl-CoA as the basic unit for fatty acid biosynthesis. The data obtained during the ripening indicate that polyphenol content and composition, in particular the oleuropein concentration, and their correlation with the recovered enzymatic activities, will be useful for a biochemical characterisation of different O. europaea L. varieties as important parameters in testing the quality of the obtainable oils.

Expression and extensive characterization of a β-glycosidase from the extreme thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus in Escherichia coli: Authenticity of the recombinant enzyme

The gene coding for the beta-glycosidase from the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus has been overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The enzyme was purified to homogeneity with a rapid purification procedure employing a thermal precipitation as a crucial step. The final yield was 64% and the purification from the thermal precipitation was 5.4-fold. The expressed enzyme shows the same molecular mass, thermophilicity, thermal stability, and broad substrate specificity, with noticeable exocellobiase (glucan 1,4-beta-D-glucosidase) activity, of the enzyme purified from S. Solfataricus. We provide evidence that the beta-glycosidase can assume its functional state in E. coli without the contribution of N-epsilon-methylated lysine residues.

Bioactive derivatives from oleuropein by a biotransformation on Olea europaea leaf extracts

A very simple method is proposed to produce, using non-homogeneous hyperthermophilic beta-glycosidase immobilised on chitosan, 3,4-dihydroxy-phenylethanol (hydroxytyrosol), a commercially unavailable compound with well known biological properties which justify a potential commercial application. Leaf extracts from Olea europaea with high oleuropein content are selected as substrate for biotransformation. Under the biotransformation conditions, high amounts of hydroxytyrosol are collected within a short space of time after being preliminarily purified by a non-treated chitosan column. This is possible due to the capacity of amino groups on the chitosan to bind aldehydic groups of molecules present at the end of the reaction. We have produced a natural and non-toxic product from vegetal source, as opposed to the molecule obtainable through chemical synthesis, as a candidate to test in vivo its biological properties. The proposed process may prove useful for a further application for recycling Olea europaea leaves. The radical-scavenging properties of the bioreactor eluates and their capacity to inhibit fatty acid peroxidation rates are characterized in order to make them candidates as substitutes for synthetic antioxidants commonly used to increase the shelf-life of food products as well as for their possible protective effect in human cells.

Hydrolysis of oleuropein by recombinant β-glycosidase from hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus immobilised on chitosan matrix

The recombinant beta-glycosidase (EcS beta gly) from Sulfolobus solfataricus was immobilised on chitosan to perform the enzymatic hydrolysis of commercial oleuropein (heterosidic ester of elenolic acid and 3,4-dihydroxy-phenylethanol (hydroxytyrosol)) at two temperatures (60 and 70 degrees C). Interestingly, on the basis of the reasonable assumption that the enzyme hydrolyses only the sugar linkage, the biotransformation produces unstable aglycone species formed by oleuropein hydrolysis that, differently from some commercially available beta-glucosidases tested, give rise to the formation of hydroxytyrosol, at the operative temperatures of the bioreactor. The results of the biotransformation at 70 degrees C showed that the main products are hydroxytyrosol, and glucose, being the oleuropein aglycone present in low amount at the end of reaction. Both in single step approach or in recycle approach the amounts of glucose and oleuropein aglycone were lightly dependent from flow rate. The amount of hydroxytyrosol, increased on decreasing the flow rate of bioreactor in recycle approach, following a non-linear trend and obtaining the highest value at a flow rate of 15 ml h-1 while in the single step approach the 3,4-dihydroxy-phenylethanol was at its maximum at higher flow rate (16 ml h-1). For the hydrolysis of the oleuropein by bioreactor at 60 degrees C we used lower molar ratio oleuropein/enzyme only by the single step approach. In these conditions it is possible to obtain high amounts of only two products (glucose and hydroxytyrosol) in short time (2 h). The stability of the bioreactor at the operative temperatures showed a t1/2 of 30 days at 70 degrees C and a t1/2 of 56 days at 60 degrees C.

Chloroplastic glycolipids fuel aldehyde biosynthesis in the marine diatom Thalassiosira rotula.

Enzymatic preparations and specialized analytical tools have shown that chloroplast‐derived glycolipids are the main substrates for the biosynthetic pathway that produces antiproliferative polyunsaturated aldehydes in broken cells of the marine diatom Thalassiosira rotula. This process, which is associated with the formation of free fatty acids and lyso compounds from polar lipids but not triglycerides, is largely dependent on glycolipid hydrolytic activity, rather than phospholipase A2 as previously suggested. Preliminary characterization of lipolytic enzymes has revealed protein bands of 40–45 kDa. Under native conditions these proteins seem to be associated with soluble aggregates that have an apparent molecular weight of approximately 200 kDa. The biochemical process, which is similar to that described in the algal‐bloom forming diatom Skeletonema costatum, suggests a mechanism based on decompartmentalization and mixing of preexisting enzymes and substrates.

Structure-function studies on β-glycosidase from Sulfolobus solfataricus. Molecular bases of thermostability

beta-Glycosidase from the extreme thermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus is a thermostable tetrameric protein with a molecular mass of 240 kDa which is stable in the presence of detergents and has a maximal activity above 95 degrees C. An understanding of the structure-function relationship of the enzyme under different chemical-physical conditions is of fundamental importance for both theoretical and application purposes. In this paper we report the effect of basic pH values on the structural stability of this enzyme. The structure of the enzyme was studied at pH 10 and in the temperature range 25-97.5 degrees C using circular dichroism, Fourier-transform infrared and fluorescence spectroscopy. The spectroscopic data indicated that the enzyme stability was strongly affected by pH 10 suggesting that the destabilization of the protein structure is correlated with the perturbation of ionic interactions present in the native protein at neutral pHs. These experiments give support to the observation derived from the 3D-structure, that large ion pair networks on the surface stabilize Sulfolobus solfataricus beta-glycosidase.

Use of Esterase Activities for the Detection of Chemical Neurotoxic Agents

The quest for a quick and easy detection of the neurotoxin levels in the environment has fostered the search for systems alternative to currently employed analytical methods such as spectrophotometer, gas-liquid chromatography, thin-layer chromatography, and more recently mass spectrometry. These drawbacks lead to intense research efforts to develop biosensor devices for the determination of these compounds. In this review, we present an overview of the actual development of research in neurotoxin detection by using enzymatic biosensors based on esterase activity, in particular cholinesterases, and carboxylesterases. Detection by enzymatic activity could be carried out measuring the hydrolysis products or the residual enzymatic activity after inhibition, using a transducer system that makes possible the correlation between the determined activity and the analyte concentration. Several transducer systems were adopted for the neurotoxins identification using esterases, including electrochemical, optical, conductimetric and piezoelectric procedures. The differences in the used transducer determine the final sensitivity and specificity of the biosensor. Moreover, a brief description of immobilization procedure, that is an important step in the biosensor development and could affect the final characteristic of biosensor (sensibility, stability, response time and reproducibility), was accomplished. Final considerations on advantages and problems, related to actual development of these technologies, and its prospective were discussed.

Fluorescence Spectroscopy Approaches for the Development of a Real-Time Organophosphate Detection System Using an Enzymatic Sensor

Organophosphates are organic substances that contain a phosphoryl or a thiophosphoryl bond. They are mainly used around the world as pesticides, but can also be used as chemical warfare agents. Their detection is normally entrusted to techniques like GC- and LC-MS that, although sensitive, do not allow their identification on site and in real time. We have approached their identification by exploiting the high-affinity binding of these compounds with the esterase 2 from Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius. Using an in silico analysis to evaluate the binding affinities of the enzyme with organophosphate inhibitors, like paraoxon, and other organophosphate compounds, like parathion, chlorpyriphos, and other organophosphate thio-derivatives, we have designed fluorescence spectroscopy experiments to study the quenching of the tryptophan residues after esterase 2 binding with the organophosphate pesticides. The changes in the fluorescence signals permitted an immediate and quantitative identification of these compounds from nano- to picomolar concentrations. A fluorescence based polarity-sensitive probe (ANS) was also employed as a means to understand the extent of the interactions involved, as well as to explore other ways to detect organophosphate pesticides. Finally, we designed a framework for the development of a biosensor that exploits fluorescence technology in combination with a sensitive and very stable bio-receptor.

Thermostable esterase 2 from Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius as biosensor for the detection of organophosphate pesticides.

Pesticides are the plague of modern times, although much needed in agriculture, causing damage to the entire ecosystem, including humans. The high operative costs and the requirement of specialized personnel for pesticide detection, incentive to develop alternative solutions such as the set up of cheap, rapid, and simple to use biosensors. In this work, we evaluate the possibility to use the esterase 2 from Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius as a biosensor for the detection of specific organophosphate pesticides. With the recent demonstration of the very high affinity of esterase 2 toward paraoxon, a more complete analysis on the detection methods in water as well as in purposely contaminated fruit juices was carried out. The inhibitory effects of a wide range of other pesticides on esterase 2 were investigated, showing a better selectivity with respect to nonspecific reaction of acethylcholinesterases, the main target of organophosphate pesticides. The applied methodology allowed one to detect 2.75 × 10(-3) ppm of neurotoxic agent, comparable to the efficiency of other acethylcholinesterase-based biosensors. Finally, a raw biosensor, based on EST2 immobilization on a nitrocellulose membrane, was devised and tested for paraoxon detection, showing longtime stability, reproducibility, and sensibility.

Evidence for co-operativity in coenzyme binding to tetrameric Sulfolobus solfataricus alcohol dehydrogenase and its structural basis: fluorescence, kinetic and structural studies of the wild-type enzyme and non-co-operative N249Y mutant

The interaction of coenzyme with thermostable homotetrameric NAD(H)-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase from the thermoacidophilic sulphur-dependent crenarchaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus (SsADH) and its N249Y (Asn-249-->Tyr) mutant was studied using the high fluorescence sensitivity of its tryptophan residues Trp-95 and Trp-117 to the binding of coenzyme moieties. Fluorescence quenching studies performed at 25 degrees C show that SsADH exhibits linearity in the NAD(H) binding [the Hill coefficient (h) approximately 1) at pH 9.8 and at moderate ionic strength, in addition to positive co-operativity (h=2.0-2.4) at pH 7.8 and 6.8, and at pH 9.8 in the presence of salt. Furthermore, NADH binding is positively co-operative below 20 degrees C (h approximately 3) and negatively co-operative at 40-50 degrees C (h approximately 0.7), as determined at moderate ionic strength and pH 9.8. Steady-state kinetic measurements show that SsADH displays standard Michaelis-Menten kinetics between 35 and 45 degrees C, but exhibits positive and negative co-operativity for NADH oxidation below (h=3.3 at 20 degrees C) and above (h=0.7 at 70-80 degrees C) this range of temperatures respectively. However, N249Y SsADH displays non-co-operative behaviour in coenzyme binding under the same experimental conditions used for the wild-type enzyme. In loop 270-275 of the coenzyme domain and segments at the interface of dimer A-B, analyses of the wild-type and mutant SsADH structures identified the structural elements involved in the intersubunit communication and suggested a possible structural basis for co-operativity. This is the first report of co-operativity in a tetrameric ADH and of temperature-induced co-operativity in a thermophilic enzyme.