Flavio A. Franchina

Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: Recent evolution and current trends.

The present contribution is focused on the evolution and current trends of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC × GC-MS), with respect to a review that described this specific methodology published at the beginning of 2008 (Mondello et al., 2008). In fact, since then there has been considerable evolution in the MS field, certainly exceeding that observed in GC × GC. In particular, the present paper will cover the combination of novel MS machines [single quadrupole (Q) and triple quadrupole, isotope ratio, low- and high-resolution time-of-flight (ToF), hybrid (Q-ToF)] to GC × GC systems, and will position comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography within the wider context of separation science.

Untargeted and targeted comprehensive two-dimensional GC analysis using a novel unified high-speed triple quadrupole mass spectrometer☆

The present manuscript is focused on the evaluation of a novel high-speed triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (QqQ MS), carried out under extreme GC conditions, namely those generated by a flow-modulated (FM) comprehensive two-dimensional GC (GC×GC) system. The novel QqQ MS system is capable of operation under high speed conditions, in both full-scan (maximum scan speed: 20,000 amu/s) and multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes. Moreover, the QqQ MS instrument can generate simultaneous full scan/MRM data, also in a very rapid manner. An FM GC × GC-MSMS method was developed for the simultaneous full-scan qualitative analysis of untargeted essential oil compounds, and MRM quali/quantitative analysis of targeted ones, namely three preservatives [o-phenylphenol (OPP), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)]. The QqQMS system generated a sufficient number of data points per peak, for both qualitative and quantitative purposes. The degree of sensitivity, reached through the MRM analysis, widely exceeded current-day regulations. Method validation, related to the MRM analysis, was performed considering retention time, peak area and ion ratio repeatability, limits of detection and quantification, and accuracy. Additionally, a spearmint essential oil was spiked with 5 phytosanitary compounds at the 1 ppb level, and analysed through an MRM-only GC × GC-MSMS application. Emphasis was devoted not only on sensitivity (satisfactory for all the contaminants), but also on the importance of precursor ion selection, and of the GC × GC separation process. Finally, sensitivity was compared between the MRM and SIM modes, in scan/MRM, MRM, scan/SIM and SIM analyses, performed on a mixture of 22 phytosanitary products, at a concentration level in the 50-150 ppb range.

Use of greatly-reduced gas flows in flow-modulated comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry☆

The present research is specifically based on the use of greatly-reduced gas flows, in flow-modulator (FM) comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography systems. In particular, focus of the present research is directed to FM devices characterized by an accumulation stage, and a much briefer re-injection step. It has been widely accepted that the operation of such FM systems requires high gas flows (≥20mL/min), to re-inject the gas-phase contents of sample (or accumulation) loops, onto the second column. On the contrary, it will be herein demonstrated that much lower gas flows (≈ 6-8mL/min) can efficiently perform the modulation step of re-injection. The possibility of using such improved operational conditions is given simply by a fine optimization of the processes of accumulation and re-injection. The application of lower gas flows not only means that second-dimension separations are carried out under better analytical conditions, but, even more importantly, greatly reduces problems which arise when using mass spectrometry (i.e., sensitivity and instrumental pumping capacity).

A flow-modulated comprehensive gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for the analysis of fatty acid profiles in marine and biological samples.

The present investigation is focused on the development of a flow-modulator (FM) comprehensive 2D GC (GC×GC)-quadrupole mass spectrometry (qMS) approach, for the analysis of fatty acids. A recently developed flow modulator interfaced an apolar-polar column set, and was used for the first time with a mass spectrometer. Method development was achieved by using a standard mixture, containing fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). The total run time was approx. 40 min, thus relatively rapid. The optimized FM GC×GC-qMS method was applied to marine and biological FAMEs. Validation parameters such as intra-day and inter-day repeatability, limits of identification (mass spectral quality was evaluated at various FAME concentrations), and quantification were measured. Peak assignment was performed using pure standard compounds (when available), linear retention indices (LRIs), a dedicated FAME MS database, and specific bidimensional chromatogram positions. The MS database contained one-dimensional LRI information, exploited as a filter during the MS database search procedure. A good agreement was observed between database LRI values, and those calculated on the twin-column set. The FM GC×GC-qMS method can be considered as a valid counterpart, with respect to cryogenically modulated GC×GC, in the fatty acid field of research.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the unsaponifiable fraction of vegetable oils by using comprehensive 2D GC with dual MS/FID detection

The present investigation is focused on the development of a comprehensive two-dimensional GC (GC × GC) method, with dual MS/FID detection, for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the entire unsaponifiable fraction of vegetable oils. The unsaponifiable fraction forms a minor, highly specific part of a vegetable oil, and can be used as an indicator of genuineness. The column set used consisted of a low-polarity first dimension, and a medium-polarity secondary one, both characterized by a high thermal stability. The use of dual detection enabled the attainment of both mass spectral information and relative % FID data. The complexity of the fingerprint, generated by the unsaponifiable fraction, fully justified the employment of the two-dimensional GC technology. Furthermore, two other GC × GC benefits contributed greatly to the attainment of promising results, namely sensitivity enhancement and the formation of group-type patterns. The method herein proposed could potentially open a new opportunity for the more in-depth knowledge of the unsaponifiable fraction of vegetable oils.

Four-stage (low-)flow modulation comprehensive gas chromatographyquadrupole mass spectrometry for the determination of recently-highlighted cosmetic allergens

The present research is based on the development and use of a flow-modulation (FM) comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC×GC-qMS) method for the determination of recently-highlighted (by the Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety) fragrance allergens (54) in cosmetics. FM GC×GC-qMS conditions were finely tuned to generate flow conditions (≈7 mL min(-1)) compatible with the qMS system used. Six-point calibration curves, over the range 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 mg L(-1), were constructed for the 54 target allergens, with satisfactory linearity observed in all cases. Absolute quantification was performed by using extracted ions; target analyte identification was performed through measurement of ion ratios (qualifier/quantifier), full-scan MS database matching and the use of linear retention indices. Additional analytical figures of merit subjected to measurement were intra-day repeatability, accuracy at the 25 and 5 mg L(-1) levels, and limits of detection and quantification. The number of data points per peak, along with mass spectral skewing, was also subjected to evaluation. Finally, the FM GC×GC-qMS method was used not only for the quantification of target allergens in five commercial perfumes, but also for general qualitative profiling.

Determination of phthalate esters in vegetable oils using direct immersion solid-phase microextraction and fast gas chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometry

Phthalates are a group of synthetic compounds mainly used as plasticizers, which have been classified as endocrine-disrupting chemicals and potential human-cancer causing agents. They can be found in high amounts in foods, deriving mainly from plastic packaging. The analytical determination of these compounds is very challenging since they are ubiquitous. Therefore, minimization of sample manipulation is highly desirable. The present work exploited the application of a solid-phase microextraction method for the analysis of phthalates in vegetable oil. A preliminary comparison between a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and a Carbopack Z/PDMS fiber was carried out both in the headspace and direct immersion extraction modes. Before immersing the fiber, a rapid liquid-liquid extraction was performed using acetonitrile to remove the bulk of triglycerides. PDMS in the direct immersion mode showed the best performance. The method was fully validated obtaining a good linearity with a coefficient of correlation of over 0.9960 for all compounds, repeatability and accuracy values generally better than 10%, and very good limit of quantification values.

Flow-Modulated Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography Combined with a High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometer: A Proof-of-Principle Study

The present research is focused on the evaluation of a recently developed high-resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometer (HR TOF MS), under the challenging conditions of a flow-modulation comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (FM GC × GC) experiment. The HR TOF MS instrument was operated at a spectral generation frequency of 30 Hz and a mass resolution of ≥25,000 (fwhm). The effluent exiting the second-dimension column was in the range 6-8 mL/min, with part directed to waste to avoid exceeding the maximum pumping capacity of the MS system. An FM GC × GC-HR TOF MS method was developed for the untargeted and targeted analysis of a sample of high complexity, namely, heavy gas oil. With regard to the untargeted results, these were satisfactory in relation to MS database searching and mass accuracies. Considering the targeted data, the high selectivity of the MS system was highlighted by the use of accurate mass extracted-ion-chromatograms with narrow mass windows (±5 and ±1 ppm), for specific classes of polyaromatic sulfur heterocycles (PASHs), namely, benzothiophenes and dibenzothiophenes. Finally, the instrumental performance was also evaluated through the injection of standard solutions of four classes of PASHs.

Determination of aromatic sulphur compounds in heavy gas oil by using (low-)flow modulated comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry.

The present research is focused on the development of a flow-modulated comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (FM GC × GC-MS/MS) method for the determination of classes of aromatic organic sulphur compounds (benzothiophenes, dibenzothiophenes, and benzonaphthothiophene) in heavy gas oil (HGO). The MS/MS instrument was used to provide both full-scan and multiple-reaction-monitoring (MRM) data. Linear retention index (LRI) ranges were used to define the MRM windows for each chemical class. Calibration solutions (internal standard: 1-fluoronaphthalene) were prepared by using an HGO sample, depleted of S compounds. Calibration information was also derived for the thiophene class (along with MRM and LRI data), even though such constituents were not present in the HGO. Linearity was satisfactory over the analyzed concentration range (1-100 mg/L); intra-day precision for the lowest calibration point was always below 17%. Accuracy was also satisfactory, with a maximum percentage error of 3.5% (absolute value) found among the S classes subjected to (semi-)quantification. The highest limit of quantification was calculated to be 299 μg/L (for the C1-benzothiophene class), while the lowest was 21 μg/L (for the C4-benzothiophene class).

Determination of saturated-hydrocarbon contamination in baby foods by using on-line liquid–gas chromatography and off-line liquid chromatography-comprehensive gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry

The present contribution describes an investigation directed towards the use of a rapid heart-cutting multidimensional LC-GC-FID method for the analysis of mineral oil saturated hydrocarbons (MOSH), contained in different types of homogenized solid baby food (fish, meat and fruit products). The fish and meat products all contained vegetable oil (sunflower), potentially an important source of mineral-oil contamination. Sixteen commercial baby food samples were subjected to analysis, with various degrees of MOSH contamination (from 0.3mg/kg to circa 14 mg/kg) found. Hence, MOSH contamination was found not only in the meat and fish products, but also in the fruit ones. A fruit-based baby food was lab-made, using the ingredients reported on the commercial product, and was found to be contaminated. The single ingredients were then subjected to LC-GC analysis, with corn starch and sugar found to be the source of contamination. For confirmation of the analytical findings, three of the sixteen samples were analyzed in two separate laboratories, using two distinct LC-GC methods, based on different interfaces. The results were confirmed, in qualitative terms, by collecting the LC fractions, relative to some of the food samples, and subjecting them to comprehensive two-dimensional GC-quadrupole mass spectrometry. Thus, mass spectral data were attained for the saturated hydrocarbons.