Floris Vermeulen

The Immigrant Organising Process : Turkish Organisations in Amsterdam and Berlin and Surinamese Organisations in Amsterdam, 1960-2000

This study focuses on the emergence and persistence of immigrant organisations in host societies. The relevance of immigrant organisations for both the host society and the immigrants themselves has been effectively demonstrated in many different studies. However, the question why immigrant organisations emerge and why they often persist over a long period is not adequately answered. In this study a comparative approach is used to reveal the structural determinants of the immigrant organising process. Different theoretical perspectives are combined (immigration model, social movement theory and the organisational ecology model). It is this combination of models, which has not yet been done by other scholars, which determines the value of this study and the contribution to a better understanding of the immigrant organising process. A comparative method is used, analysing Turkish organisations in Amsterdam and Berlin and Surinamese organisations in Amsterdam (1960-2000), to explain the way in which the three explanatory models can be combined in one coherent explanation.

Organisational patterns. Surinamese and Turkish associations in Amsterdam, 1960-1990

This article compares the organisations of two groups of immigrants in Amsterdam—the Surinamese and the Turks. It documents the numbers of Surinamese and Turkish organisations and traces the process of organisational differentiation in each group. It then analyses the evolution of Surinamese and Turkish organisational patterns to see in what way they differ, and why this is the case. It shows that, contrary to expectation, it is not just group characteristics that explains the different organisational patterns of Surinamese and Turks in Amsterdam. Although we look at two groups in the same city, the local opportunity structure differs as well. Local policy reinforces the main driving forces behind the Surinamese and Turkish organising process. The development of the organisations of both groups should therefore be explained by a combination of three factors: the different (local) opportunity structure, different group characteristics and the organisational traditions in the country of origin.

Explaining Different Trajectories in Immigrant Political Integration: Moroccans and Turks in Amsterdam

This article examines why the political integration and representation of ethnic minority groups may develop along different paths. Taking Amsterdam as a case study, it compares two of the city’s most predominant immigrant groups: Turks, who have taken a group-based incorporation strategy – visible in this group’s dense organisational infrastructure – and Moroccans, who have followed a more individualist assimilation strategy. The distinct trajectories have produced a relatively high proportion of Turkish-origin elected officials, while individuals of Moroccan origin feature more prominently in executive office, exercising power over day-to-day decisions. The article proposes that whereas features of the electoral system determine which opportunities exist for immigrants to participate in the political process, it is the structure of an immigrant group that affects the ability of members to seize such opportunities. Furthermore, it shows how political parties and party elites act as gatekeepers and facilitators of immigrants’ political participation.

Different Effects of Ethnic Diversity on Social Capital: Density of Foundations and Leisure Associations in Amsterdam Neighbourhoods

This article examines the effect of ethnic diversity on social capital in Amsterdam neighbourhoods by looking at the effects of the ethnic diversity of a neighbourhood on the social networks that underpin civil society. A distinction is made between homogeneous, more individually oriented social networks, on the one hand, and horizontal heterogeneous networks on the other. The density of foundations—i.e. the number of foundations in a neighbourhood—is used as the indicator for the first type of networks and the density of leisure associations for the latter type. In addition, the study looks at the effect of a changing context in Amsterdam in which ethnic diversity has increasingly come to be perceived as problematic by inhabitants and local politicians. The results indeed show that ethnic diversity has a different effect on both forms of civil society: the horizontal heterogeneous networks suffer more from ethnic diversity than the homogeneous networks.

Cities and the politics of immigrant integration: a comparison of Berlin, Amsterdam, New York City, and San Francisco

ABSTRACT This article examines how the urban context, rather than national or regional context, shapes local immigrant integration policies. We draw on the integration experiences of four large European and American cities—Berlin, Amsterdam, New York City, and San Francisco—to develop a basic inductive framework for explaining when and why city officials enact and implement policies that promote immigrant integration. Our framework highlights the importance for cities to have (1) left-leaning governments, (2) immigrants who constitute a large part of the city electorate and are part of local decision-making structures, and (3) an infrastructure of community-based organisations that actively represent immigrants’ collective interests in local politics and policy-making. We show that when these three factors exist synergistically, cities are more likely to commit themselves to policies that promote immigrant integration even when the national context is not very hospitable to immigrant rights.

Suspect Communities—Targeting Violent Extremism at the Local Level: Policies of Engagement in Amsterdam, Berlin, and London

Throughout Europe, authorities have set up new policy measures and programs to curb homegrown violent extremists. This article describes local policy responses to violent Islamic extremism—and/or the mere threat of it—in the neighborhoods Oost in Amsterdam, Moabit and Soldiner Kiez in Berlin, and Tower Hamlets in London. Based on locally conducted fieldwork, the study compares and contrasts these neighborhoods’ approaches and aims to make a first assessment of their effects. A major finding for all three cities is that authorities target the entire local Muslim community rather than a few select individuals. This can lead to the construction of suspect communities, an approach with possible paradoxical effects on targeting actual violent extremists. Suspect communities subsequently create stigmatization, exclusion, and possibly marginalization, which not only has negative consequences for involved groups, but may well produce a breeding ground for future violence. However, the author did not find that engagement with Islamic organizations or individuals was used to directly change the nature of local Muslim communities. Orthodox and non-violent extremist organizations and individuals in all three cities were potential partners for engagement, which probably lowers the chance of stigmatizing the suspect communities.

The organisational legitimacy of immigrant groups: Turks and Moroccans in Amsterdam

This article analyses the organising process of Turkish and Moroccan immigrant groups in Amsterdam over a long-term period. In it, we argue that organisational legitimacy is the driving factor of an organisational process. We understand legitimacy as a generalised belief that an organisations actions are desirable, suitable and appropriate within a given social system. Like other scholars, we distinguish between cognitive legitimacy and sociopolitical legitimacy. Cognitive legitimacy is demonstrated when a new organisation is accepted by the public as a taken-for-granted feature of society – in this case, we refer to acceptance by the immigrant constituency. Sociopolitical legitimacy is demonstrated when an organisation is accepted by external political actors. Our analyses reveal that the immigrant organising process is first and foremost driven by cognitive legitimacy; external actors play a less important role. This article, however, also shows that immigrant groups can have unique legitimacy processes. As we found was the case for Moroccans in Amsterdam, immigrant groups with relatively weak ethnic networks and ethnic consciousness rely more on sociopolitical legitimacy to fuel their organising process than those with more group-based resources.

Mutualism, resource competition and opposing movements among Turkish organizations in Amsterdam and Berlin, 1965–2000

This article seeks to understand environmental effects on associational interdependencies, be they competitive or collaborative, in a polarized organizational population. To do so, it builds on the density-dependent model and the ecology of ideologies. Especially interested in the effect of context on density-dependent processes, I compare different Turkish ideological movements in Amsterdam and Berlin. Amsterdam represents an open and supportive environment for such movements, whereas Berlin constitutes a more closed and hostile one. By analysing the founding and disbanding rates of Turkish immigrant organizations in Amsterdam and Berlin during the period 1965-2000, the article demonstrates how the increasing density of Turkish ideologies has affected interdependencies in two main ways: by heightening competition, particularly between ideologically similar organizations, and by increasing counter activities between opposing movements. It also shows that the influence of context is limited. An open environment does not significantly influence the vitality rates of ideologies or further collaboration among or between them. On the contrary, it seemingly increases competition and fragmentation because more resources and opportunities are available. More signs of collaboration and mutualism are found in Berlins closed environment.

Organizing for Access? The Political Mobilization of Turks in Amsterdam

Abstract This essay addresses the issue of the relationship between political and organizational mobilization of Turkish immigrants in Amsterdam. Data on Turkish councilors in Amsterdam over time and on the boards of local Turkish organizations in Amsterdam between 1970 and 2002 reveals that a majority of the municipal councilors of Turkish origin in Amsterdam have been on the board of a Turkish organization. However, it seems that the political influence of the Turkish organizations is rather limited in the process of recruitment of the local political elite when compared to the role of Dutch political parties. Interviews with Turkish councilors in Amsterdam show that once elected, the councilors seem to develop more nuanced ties with the Turkish community.

Liberal equality and toleration for conservative religious minorities. Decreasing opportunities for religious schools in the Netherlands

Liberal democratic states face new challenges in balancing between principles of religious freedom and non-discrimination and in balancing these constitutional principles with other concerns, including social cohesion, good education, and immigrant-integration. In a context of increased prominence of secular and anti-Islamic voices in political debate, there are demands to reduce legal ‘exceptions’ for (conservative) religious groups in the Netherlands. This article focuses in particular on public debate and jurisprudence with regard to education and explores discussions of associational freedoms that are of importance to religious schools, including the right to select and refuse pupils (the debate on the so-called duty to enrol (acceptatieplicht)), the possibilities for schools to refuse hiring staff who do not support the schools philosophy (for example in relation to sexual orientation), and teaching on sexuality and sexual diversity. The article concludes by arguing that the Netherlands is undergoing a shift in the conceptualisation of religious freedom in relation to liberal equality, which in the longer run may destabilise a tradition of toleration and substantial collective freedoms for conservative religious groups.