Francella J. Otero

Bone marrow–derived stem cells target retinal astrocytes and can promote or inhibit retinal angiogenesis

Adult bone marrow (BM) contains cells capable of differentiating along hematopoietic (Lin+) or non-hematopoietic (Lin−) lineages. Lin− hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) have recently been shown to contain a population of endothelial precursor cells (EPCs) capable of forming blood vessels. Here we show that intravitreally injected Lin− BM cells selectively target retinal astrocytes, cells that serve as a template for both developmental and injury-associated retinal angiogenesis. When Lin− BM cells were injected into neonatal mouse eyes, they extensively and stably incorporated into forming retinal vasculature. When EPC-enriched HSCs were injected into the eyes of neonatal rd/rd mice, whose vasculature ordinarily degenerates with age, they rescued and maintained a normal vasculature. In contrast, normal retinal angiogenesis was inhibited when EPCs expressing a potent angiostatic protein were injected. We have demonstrated that Lin− BM cells and astrocytes specifically interact with one another during normal angiogenesis and pathological vascular degeneration in the retina. Selective targeting with Lin− HSC may be a useful therapeutic approach for the treatment of many ocular diseases.

Lipid G Protein-coupled Receptor Ligand Identification Using β-Arrestin PathHunter™ Assay

A growing number of orphan G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) have been reported to be activated by lipid ligands, such as lysophosphatidic acid, sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), and cannabinoids, for which there are already well established receptors. These new ligand claims are controversial due to either lack of independent confirmations or conflicting reports. We used the β-arrestin PathHunter™ assay system, a newly developed, generic GPCR assay format that measures β-arrestin binding to GPCRs, to evaluate lipid receptor and ligand pairing. This assay eliminates interference from endogenous receptors on the parental cells because it measures a signal that is specifically generated by the tagged receptor and is immediately downstream of receptor activation. We screened a large number of newly “deorphaned” receptors (GPR23, GPR92, GPR55, G2A, GPR18, GPR3, GPR6, GPR12, and GPR63) and control receptors against a collection of ∼400 lipid molecules to try to identify the receptor ligand in an unbiased fashion. GPR92 was confirmed to be a lysophosphatidic acid receptor with weaker responses to farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl diphosphate. The putative cannabinoid receptor GPR55 responded strongly to AM251, rimonabant, and lysophosphatidylinositol but only very weakly to endocannabinoids. G2A receptor was confirmed to be an oxidized free fatty acid receptor. In addition, we discovered that 3,3′-diindolylmethane, a dietary molecule from cruciferous vegetables, which has known anti-cancer properties, to be a CB2 receptor partial agonist, with binding affinity around 1 μm. The anti-inflammatory effect of 3,3′-diindolylmethane in RAW264.7 cells was shown to be partially mediated by CB2.

Crystal structures that suggest late development of genetic code components for differentiating aromatic side chains

Early forms of the genetic code likely generated “statistical” proteins, with similar side chains occupying the same sequence positions at different ratios. In this scenario, groups of related side chains were treated by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases as a single molecular species until a discrimination mechanism developed that could separate them. The aromatic amino acids tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine likely constituted one of these groups. A crystal structure of human tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase was solved at 2.1 Å with a tryptophanyl-adenylate bound at the active site. A cocrystal structure of an active fragment of human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase with its cognate amino acid analog was also solved at 1.6 Å. The two structures enabled active site identifications and provided the information for structure-based sequence alignments of ≈45 orthologs of each enzyme. Two critical positions shared by all tyrosyl-tRNA synthetases and tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetases for amino acid discrimination were identified. The variations at these two positions and phylogenetic analyses based on the structural information suggest that, in contrast to many other amino acids, discrimination of tyrosine from tryptophan occurred late in the development of the genetic code.

Mutational Separation of Aminoacylation and Cytokine Activities of Human Tyrosyl-tRNA Synthetase

Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases are known for catalysis of aminoacylation. Significantly, some mammalian synthetases developed cytokine functions possibly linked to disease-causing mutations in tRNA synthetases. Not understood is how epitopes for cytokine signaling were introduced into catalytic scaffolds without disturbing aminoacylation. Here we investigate human tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase, where a catalytic-domain surface helix, next to the active site, was recruited for interleukin-8-like cytokine signaling. Taking advantage of our high resolution structure, the reciprocal impact of rational mutations designed to disrupt aminoacylation or cytokine signaling was investigated with multiple assays. The collective analysis demonstrated a protective fine-structure separation of aminoacylation from cytokine activities within the conserved catalytic domain. As a consequence, disease-causing mutations affecting cell signaling can arise without disturbing aminoacylation. These results with TyrRS also predict the previously unknown binding conformation of interleukin-8-like CXC cytokines.

Two conformations of a crystalline human tRNA synthetase–tRNA complex: implications for protein synthesis

Aminoacylation of tRNA is the first step of protein synthesis. Here, we report the co‐crystal structure of human tryptophanyl‐tRNA synthetase and tRNATrp. This enzyme is reported to interact directly with elongation factor 1α, which carries charged tRNA to the ribosome. Crystals were generated from a 50/50% mixture of charged and uncharged tRNATrp. These crystals captured two conformations of the complex, which are nearly identical with respect to the protein and a bound tryptophan. They are distinguished by the way tRNA is bound. In one, uncharged tRNA is bound across the dimer, with anticodon and acceptor stem interacting with separate subunits. In this cross‐dimer tRNA complex, the class I enzyme has a class II‐like tRNA binding mode. This structure accounts for biochemical investigations of human TrpRS, including species‐specific charging. In the other conformation, presumptive aminoacylated tRNA is bound only by the anticodon, the acceptor stem being free and having space to interact precisely with EF‐1α, suggesting that the product of aminoacylation can be directly handed off to EF‐1α for the next step of protein synthesis.

Evidence for Annexin II-S100A10 Complex and Plasmin in Mobilization of Cytokine Activity of Human TrpRS

In mammalian cells, specific aminoacyl-transfer RNA (tRNA) synthetases have cytokine functions that require interactions with partners outside of the translation apparatus. Little is known about these interactions and how they facilitate expanded functions that link protein translation to other cellular pathways. For example, an alternative splice fragment of tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TrpRS) and a similar natural proteolytic fragment are potent angiostatic factors that act through the vascular endothelial-cadherin receptor and Akt signaling pathway. Here we demonstrate mobilization of TrpRS for exocytosis from endothelial cells and the potential for plasmin to activate the cytokine function of the extracellular synthetase. Direct physical evidence showed that the annexin II-S100A10 complex, which regulates exocytosis, forms a ternary complex with TrpRS. Functional studies demonstrate that both annexin II and S100A10 regulate trafficking of TrpRS. Thus, complexes of mammalian tRNA synthetases with seemingly disparate proteins may in general be relevant to understanding how their expanded functions are implemented.