Frances A. Tepolt

Youth sports specialization and musculoskeletal injury: a systematic review of the literature

ABSTRACT Objectives: Early sports specialization is being seen with increasing frequency in children and adolescents in an attempt to achieve elite performance status. This phenomenon has attracted negative medical and lay media attention due, in part, to the possibility of an increased risk of acute and overuse injuries. The purpose of this study was to systematically review available research on youth sport specialization and musculoskeletal injury. Methods: A systematic review was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines for studies evaluating sports specialization and injury rates in participants under age 18. Inclusion criteria were: (1) youth patient population (defined as <18 years of age), (2) peer-reviewed investigation of association(s) between sports specialization and incidence of injury, and (3) original research article (rather than a review, case report, or meta-analysis). Exclusion criteria were: (1) reliance on surrogate measure(s) of sports specialization (eg. hours of participation), (2) language other than English, and (3) not a clinically-based study. Rates of sport specialization, acute and overuse injuries, and frequency of organized training regimens were recorded. Results: Three studies met final inclusion and exclusion criteria. Of these studies two were retrospective cohort studies and one was a case-control study. All three studies reported an increased risk of overuse injures (OR range: 1.27–4.0; P < 0.05) which varied by sport and anatomic pathology. One study noted an increased rate of withdrawal from tennis matches (OR = 1.55, P < 0.05) in athletes who participated only in tennis compared to multisport athletes who competed in tennis. Based on the consistency of the results from included studies, the strength of recommendation grade for the current evidence against early sports specialization is “B” (recommendation based on limited-quality patient-oriented evidence). Conclusions: The primary evidence that currently exists with regard to early sport specialization is scarce, retrospective, and shows only modest associations between early sports specialization and overuse injury. Further prospective research is needed to more definitively determine if early sports specialization in children is associated with increased injury risk. Level of Evidence: Systematic Review, Level III

Concurrent Meniscal and Chondral Injuries in Pediatric and Adolescent Patients Undergoing ACL Reconstruction.

Background/Purpose:The aim of this study is to assess the prevalence of and risk factors for concurrent meniscal and articular cartilage injury in children and adolescents undergoing anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. Methods:Medical records of pediatric patients (below 18 y old) undergoing ACL surgery during the 2013 to 2014 academic year at a tertiary care children’s hospital were reviewed for clinical or radiographic documentation of meniscal or chondral injury. Prevalence of concurrent injury was regressed on the basis of age, sex, body mass index (BMI), and time between injury and surgery. Skeletally immature patients were analyzed as a separate subgroup. Results:Medical records of 208 patients with a mean age of 15±2 years were reviewed. Overall, 117 patients (56%) were found to have had at least 1 concurrent injury; 66 patients (32%) had a medial meniscus tear, 72 patients (35%) had a lateral meniscus tear, and 10 patients (5%) had a chondral lesion. Both BMI and time duration between injury and ACL reconstruction surgery were significant predictors for meniscal or chondral injury, with increase in injury prevalence of approximately 10% per point BMI and 6% per month delay to surgery. Conclusions:More than half of the children and the adolescents treated for ACL tear have concurrent meniscal or chondral injury. Risk factors for concurrent injury are BMI and time duration between injury and surgery. The prevalence of concurrent injury and associated risk factors should be considered when counseling a pediatric patient and family regarding operative versus nonoperative management in the setting of an ACL tear. Level of Evidence:Level IV—case series.

Open inferior capsular shift for multidirectional shoulder instability in adolescents with generalized ligamentous hyperlaxity or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome

BACKGROUND The objective of this study was to assess the outcome of open inferior capsular shift for multidirectional shoulder instability in patients with generalized ligamentous hyperlaxity or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome. METHODS Data were obtained for 18 open inferior capsular shift surgeries in 15 adolescent patients with generalized ligamentous hyperlaxity or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome with a mean follow-up of 7.5 years. End points were subjective clinical outcome (pain, stability, satisfaction, return to sport), objective clinical outcome (recurrence, complications), and functional outcome scores (American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons, 11-item version of the Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand). RESULTS Thirteen patients (87%) reported improved pain and stability and were satisfied with the procedure. Nine patients (64%) were able to return to sports. One patient (7%) was dissatisfied with continuous pain and recurrent instability and considered a surgical failure. Seven patients (47%) reported no further episodes of instability. The mean American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score at a mean of 7.5 years of follow-up was 88 ± 10 points, and the mean score for the 11-item version of the Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand was 14 ± 14 points. DISCUSSION The management of multidirectional shoulder instability in adolescent patients with generalized ligamentous hyperlaxity or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome is challenging. Open inferior capsular shift results in improvement in subjective and objective shoulder function and stability in adolescent patients with ligamentous hyperlaxity or Ehlers-Danlos who have failed nonoperative treatment. We found no effect of the recalled number of prior dislocations, laterality, and type of hyperlaxity on subjective and objective clinical outcomes. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level IV; Case Series; Treatment Study.

Meniscus transplantation in skeletally immature patients.

Meniscal pathology in skeletally immature patients includes meniscal tears and discoid lateral meniscus. Total or subtotal meniscectomy may occur in patients with discoid lateral meniscus or severe meniscal tears. Meniscal transplantation may be an option in skeletally immature patients status after total or subtotal meniscectomy with knee symptoms or dysfunction. This study focuses on the surgical technique and short-term outcomes of meniscus transplantation in skeletally immature patients. We reviewed our clinical database for skeletally immature patients who had undergone meniscus transplantation with a minimum of 2 years of follow-up. Patients were contacted, invited for a physical exam, and asked to complete a Pedi-IKDC, Lysholm, and Tegner outcomes questionnaire. The study protocol was approved by the responsible institutional review board. Three patients (two females/one male) were eligible for the study, each of whom responded to our invitation indicating availability for physical exam and questionnaire. Two patients had undergone subtotal discoid meniscus resection, leading to early lateral compartment degeneration. One patient developed advanced degeneration after a delay in treatment for a medial bucket-handle tear associated with anterior cruciate ligament rupture. The mean age of the patients at the time of surgery was 12.6±2.3 years. At a mean follow-up of 31±20 months, the mean Pedi-IKDC score was 68.3±4, the mean Lysholm was 55.7±22.3, and the median Tegner was 7 points. There were no indications of growth deformity during the regular postoperative radiological assessments. One patient required subsequent lysis of adhesions along the lateral mini arthrotomy and mobilization under anesthesia. The other two patients were able to return to sports at the same level as before meniscus transplantation and were able to do so within 9 months postoperatively. Over-resection of discoid menisci as well as untreated meniscus injury, the latter typically in conjunction with ligamentous instability, can lead to advanced cartilage degeneration and recalcitrant complaints necessitating surgical treatment before skeletal maturity. We were able to show that meniscus transplantation in skeletally immature patients leads to acceptable clinical outcomes without growth deviation. Level of Evidence: IV.

Surgical Treatment of Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome in Pediatric Patients

Background: Chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) is a cause of leg pain in running athletes and is treated with fasciotomy after failure of nonoperative management. CECS is being seen with increased frequency in younger patients. The demographics and outcomes of fasciotomy for CECS in pediatric patients, including risk factors for treatment failure, have not been described. Purpose: To describe characteristics of pediatric patients with CECS and determine surgical outcomes of the condition in this population. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: A retrospective review was performed for patients 18 years and younger treated surgically for CECS with compartment release at a single institution from 1995 to 2014. Demographic and condition characteristics, operative procedure, postoperative course, and clinical outcomes were recorded for 286 legs of 155 patients. Compartment pressure testing using the Pedowitz criteria confirmed the diagnosis in all patients. Results: A total of 155 patients were included in the study (average patient age at presentation, 16.4 ± 1.38 years); 136 (88%) were female. All 155 patients presented with leg pain; of these patients, 8 (5%) also had neurologic symptoms, and 131 (85%) presented with bilateral symptoms requiring bilateral compartment release. Symptoms were chronic in nature, with duration over 1 year in 63% of patients. The primary sport was most commonly reported as running (25%), soccer (23%), or field hockey (12%); 50% of patients were multisport athletes. Of 286 legs, 138 (48%) had only anterior and/or lateral compartments released, while 84 (29.4%) had all 4 compartments released. Documented return to sport was seen in 79.5% of patients. Outcomes analysis was performed for 250 of 286 legs. Of these 250 legs, 47 (18.8%) had recurrent CECS requiring reoperation at a median of 1.3 years (interquartile range, 0.8-3.5) after initial compartment release. For each additional month between presentation and release, the odds of recurrence decreased by 12% (P = .04). Legs with only anterior and/or lateral compartment released had 3.4 times (95% CI, 1.29-9.14) the odds of reoperation compared with legs that had all 4 compartments released (P = .01). Twenty-eight of 250 legs (11.2%) had wound issues that resolved with nonoperative management. No wounds required repeat surgical management. Conclusion: CECS in pediatric patients most commonly occurs in adolescent females participating in running sports. Fasciotomy results in a 79.5% return-to-sports rate. Recurrence occurs in 18.8% of patients, more commonly in patients undergoing anterior and lateral release only.

Calcaneofibular Ligament Transfer for Recurrent Peroneal Tendon Subluxation in Pediatric and Young Adult Patients

Background: Peroneal tendon subluxation is an uncommon cause of lateral ankle pain and instability but can be disabling for some young patients. Surgical management may be required to restore function for patients who fail nonoperative management. The purpose of this study was to determine the functional outcomes after surgical management of peroneal tendon subluxation in pediatric and adolescent patients. Methods: A retrospective review of patients presenting to our institution over a 10-year period yielded 18 cases of recurrent subluxation refractory to nonoperative management in 14 children or young adults (mean age 15.0 y). All patients failed nonoperative management and were treated operatively with isolated calcaneofibular ligament transfer to construct a new soft tissue restraint for the peroneal tendons. Patients were evaluated clinically and sent validated questionnaires, including the Foot and Ankle Ability Measure (FAAM) and the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) Ankle-Hindfoot Scale. Results: All 18 ankles of 14 patients had minimum 2-year follow-up. Ten of 18 ankles (55.6%) returned the outcome surveys at an average of 5.7 years after the index procedure (range, 2. 0 to 9.7 y). The average FAAM activities of daily living score was 93.5 (±2.9) and the sports subscale was 77.8 (±6.1). The mean AOFAS subjective scaled score was 84.3 (±4.5). All patients returned to sports and recreational activity. Complications included 1 case of recurrent subluxation (1/18, 5.5%) treated with revision to a Chrisman-Snook procedure and 4 ankles (4/18, 22.2%) with stiffness or arthrofibrosis treated with a secondary procedure of peroneal tendon release or lysis of adhesions. Conclusions: Surgical management with rerouting of the peroneal tendons under the calcaneofibular ligament appears to be safe and effective for young patients with chronic peroneal tendon subluxation. It provides a low rate of recurrent subluxation, excellent stability, and good long-term functional outcomes. However, the potential for postoperative stiffness appears to be a limitation to the procedure and necessitates aggressive physical therapy to maintain ankle motion. Level of Evidence: Level IV— retrospective case series.

Catcher's Knee: Posterior Femoral Condyle Juvenile Osteochondritis Dissecans in Children and Adolescents.

Background: Juvenile osteochondritis dissecans is an idiopathic condition involving subchondral bone and articular cartilage in skeletally immature patients in whom the growth plates are open, potentially leading to lesion instability. Because of the differing forces experienced by baseball/softball catchers versus position players, the age at which lesions develop and the characteristics of the lesions themselves may differ between these 2 populations. The purpose of the study was to examine relative age and characteristics of osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) knee lesions in catchers compared with position players. Methods: Using a text-based search tool that queries clinic notes and operative reports, computerized medical records from 1990 to 2014 from the Sports Medicine Program of a tertiary care Children’s Hospital were searched to find children and adolescents who had OCD of the knee, played baseball/softball, had a specified field position, and had magnetic resonance imaging of the knee. Ultimately, 98 knees (78 patients) were identified: 33 knees (29 patients) in catchers and 65 knees (49 patients) in noncatchers. Data collected included position played (catcher/noncatcher), demographics (age, unilateral/bilateral, and sex), lesion severity, and sagittal and coronal lesion location. Results: When compared with noncatchers, catchers presented at a younger age (P=0.035) but were similar with respect to bilateral involvement (P=0.115), sex (P=0.457), and lesion severity (P=0.484). Lesions in catchers were more posterior on the femoral condyle in the sagittal plane (P=0.004) but similar in location in the coronal plane (P=0.210). Conclusions: Catchers developed OCD at a younger age and in a more posterior location on the medial and lateral femoral condyles than noncatchers. These results may represent the effects of repetitive and persistent loading of the knees in the hyperflexed position required of catchers. Increased awareness of this risk may lead to surveillance and prevention programs. Level of Evidence: Level III—case-control study.

Combined Reconstruction of the Medial Patellofemoral Ligament (MPFL) and Medial Quadriceps Tendon - Femoral Ligament (MQTFL) for Patellar Instability in Children and Adolescents: Surgical Technique and Outcomes

Objectives: A variety of surgical options exist to treat the challenging problem of recurrent patellar instability in skeletally immature patients. The current study describes a combined reconstruction technique involving both the medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) and the medial quadriceps tendon - femoral ligament (MQTFL) and reports patient outcomes of a single-surgeon series. Methods: All patients studied underwent combined MPFL and MQTFL reconstruction for patellar instability. Demographic data, pre- and post-operative radiographic data were collected. Reconstruction was performed using gracilis allograft. The graft midportion was fixed to the MPFL insertion on the femur via suture anchor. One arm of the graft (MPFL) was tunneled under medial retinaculum to the medial border of the patella and fixed there via suture anchor, while the other (MQTFL) arm was tunneled, delivered under the VMO and brought through the medial distal quadriceps tendon and sutured in place. Subjective outcome scores (Kujala, Pedi-IKDC, Lysholm) were collected via questionnaires mailed to patients more than one year from surgery. Results: A total of 25 patients (27 knees), including 15 females and 10 males with an average age of 15.0 ± 2.2 years (range 10.3-18.9), underwent combined MPFL and MQTFL reconstruction. 6/25 (24%) had undergone prior ipsilateral patellofemoral surgery for instability. 5/25 (20%) underwent simultaneous guided growth via hemiepiphysiodesis for valgus deformity at the time of combined reconstruction. Preoperative imaging showed a mean TT-TG of 17.2 ± 3.8, Caton-Deschamps Index (CDI) of 1.13 ± 0.16, and trochlear dysplasia Dejour A/B (22/26 (85%)) or Dejour C/D (4/26 (15%)). A total of 18 patients (19 knees, 72%) returned outcomes questionnaires at a mean 2.0 ± 0.5 years after surgery. Mean Kujala, Pedi-IKDC, and Lysholm scores were 85.9 ± 13.9, 81.5 ± 15.2, and 84.3 ± 13.5, respectively. 2/25 patients (8%) later required a revision procedure (tibial tubercle osteotomy) for recurrent patellar instability, and another patient reported persistent instability not requiring revision. 10/13 patients (77%) were able to return to sports at a mean of 5.8 +/- 3.9 months (range 2-15). Conclusion: The current study describes a novel anatomically-validated surgical technique involving the simultaneous reconstruction of both the MPFL and MQTFL in a pediatric patient population. Follow-up data presented demonstrates overall positive results in treating this challenging problem in a young patient population.

Nonoperative management of stable pediatric osteochondritis dissecans of the capitellum: predictors of treatment success

BACKGROUND Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the capitellum is a rare but potentially debilitating condition. We sought to determine the healing potential of stable capitellar OCD treated nonoperatively, as well as factors predictive of successful nonoperative management. METHODS We performed a retrospective review of patients younger than 19 years who presented with stable OCD of the capitellum and were treated nonoperatively for a minimum of 2 months. The average clinical and radiographic follow-up period was 12.1 months (range, 3.1-63.7 months). A multivariable logistic regression model was used to determine independent predictors of healing. RESULTS The study included 89 patients (93 elbows), including 49 male patients (55%); the mean age was 12.7 years (range, 8.9-18.6 years). Of the 93 elbows, 50 (53.8%) had successfully healed at a mean of 8.3 months. The symptom duration was significantly shorter in the healing group than the nonhealing group (5.3 ± 4.4 months vs 8.8 ± 9.0 months, P = .02). There were no significant differences in age, physeal status, sex, hand dominance, or sport. Hefti stage I lesions had a higher rate of healing (64.3%) than stage II (31.4%, P = .004), as did OCDs without cyst-like lesions (CLLs, 62.0%) compared with those with CLLs (20.8%, P = .001). The normalized lesion area was significantly larger in the nonhealing group (26.9% vs 18.6%, P < .001). A smaller normalized area and the absence of CLLs were independent predictors of healing. CONCLUSIONS Over half of stable capitellar OCD lesions have the potential to heal with activity restriction. Smaller lesions without CLLs are more likely to heal with nonoperative treatment.

Intra-articular findings during the modified Brostrom procedure for lateral instability of the pediatric ankle

The purpose of this study was to identify the rates of chondral injury, soft tissue impingement, and bony impingement in pediatric patients undergoing the modified Brostrom procedure with ankle arthroscopy for lateral ankle instability. A retrospective review of all patients undergoing a modified Brostrom procedure with ankle arthroscopy performed by two surgeons at a tertiary care children’s hospital between October 2002 and April 2014 was performed. Data were collected regarding demographics, history and initial presentation, nonoperative management, surgical procedure and arthroscopic findings, and clinical follow-up. All patients had symptoms of ankle instability and had failed nonoperative management before surgery. A total of 69 patients were reviewed (75 ankles), of whom 54 (78%) were female and six underwent bilateral surgery. The mean±SD age was 15.2±2.6 years, and the mean BMI was 23.6±5.0 kg/m2. All patients had preoperative radiography and MRI. Preoperative imaging within 1 year before surgery was available for review of 57 (76%) ankles, with 16 (28%) having open physes, 28 (49%) having closing physes, and 13 (23%) having closed physes. All patients reviewed underwent the Brostrom procedure with Gould modification and routine concurrent arthroscopy. During arthroscopy, anterior soft tissue impingement was noted in 49 (65%) ankles, synovitis in 40 (53%), chondral defect in eight (11%), loose body in three (4%), and none were found to have bony impingement. Soft tissue impingement (65%) is common in pediatric patients undergoing surgery for lateral ankle instability. Bony impingement (0%) and chondral injury (11%) are uncommon. This is in contrast to the adult population where bony impingement and chondral injury are more common. Level of Evidence: Level IV Case Series.