Francesca Buttini

Particles and powders: Tools of innovation for non-invasive drug administration

The paper briefly illustrates several approaches applied in delivering particulate drugs as powders. Microparticulate drug powders are difficult to manipulate with respect to dosage form preparation, particularly when they have very small size as this leads to poor flow and packing properties. When the dosage form performance resides in the presence of individual intact drug particles, the particle characteristics have to be retained in their original state, i.e., not altered during manufacturing and/or within the dosage form. There are several examples of dry powder dosage forms intended for different administration routes whose performance is strictly dependent on particle characteristics. In addition, the preparation of the finished dosage form is dependent on powder properties. The paper addresses dry powder formulations with special focus on oral powders mainly for elderly people or children, nasal powders and inhalation dry powders. These dosage forms are very attractive for both researchers and companies. Their formulation requires deep investigation, mainly in order to define particle structure and performance. Indeed, this makes for a new breakthrough in pharmaceutics and may lead to innovative products.

Pulmonary Spray Dried Powders of Tobramycin Containing Sodium Stearate to Improve Aerosolization Efficiency

PurposeTobramycin microparticulate powders containing the hydrophobic adjunct sodium stearate were studied for their use as pulmonary formulations in dry powder inhalers.MethodsSpray-dried powders were characterized in terms of particle size distribution, morphology, crystallinity, drug dissolution rate, toxicity on epithelial lung cells and aerosol efficiency.ResultsThe presence of the sodium stearate had a direct influence on the aerosol performance of tobramycin spray-dried powders. Powders containing 1% w/w sodium stearate had fine particle fraction FPF of 84.3 ± 2.0% compared to 27.1 ± 1.9% for powders containing no adjunct. This was attributed to the accumulation of sodium stearate at the particle surface. Powders with higher sodium stearate concentrations (2% w/w) showed significantly lower FPF (66.4 ± 0.9%) and less accumulation of sodium stearate at the particle surface. This was attributed to the formation of adjunct micelles, which remained internalised in the particle structure due to their reduced tropism toward the drying drop surface and molecular mobility. Preliminary analysis of the toxicity effect of sodium stearate on A549 cell lines showed that the adjunct, in the concentration used, had no effect on cell viability over a 24-h period compared to particles of pure tobramycin.ConclusionsTobramycin pulmonary powders with low level of sodium stearate, presenting high respiration performances and no overt toxicity on lung cells, could be used to improve therapeutic outcomes of patient with Cystic Fibrosis (CF).

Spray dried amikacin powder for inhalation in cystic fibrosis patients: A quality by design approach for product construction

An amikacin product for convenient and compliant inhalation in cystic fibrosis patients was constructed by spray-drying in order to produce powders of pure drug having high respirability and flowability. An experimental design was applied as a statistical tool for the characterization of amikacin spray drying process, through the establishment of mathematical relationships between six Critical Quality Attributes (CQAs) of the finished product and five Critical Process Parameters (CPPs). The surface-active excipient, PEG-32 stearate, studied for particle engineering, in general did not benefit the CQAs of the spray dried powders for inhalation. The spray drying feed solution required the inclusion of 10% (v/v) ethanol in order to reach the desired aerodynamic performance of powders. All desirable function solutions indicated that the favourable concentration of amikacin in the feed solution had to be kept at 1% w/v level. It was found that when the feed rate of the sprayed solution was raised, an increase in the drying temperature to the maximum value (160 °C) was required to maintain good powder respirability. Finally, the increase in drying temperature always led to an evident increase in emitted dose (ED) without affecting the desirable fine particle dose (FPD) values. The application of the experimental design enabled us to obtain amikacin powders with both ED and FPD, well above the regulatory and scientific references. The finished product contained only the active ingredient, which keeps low the mass to inhale for dose requirement.

Effect of Flow Rate on In Vitro Aerodynamic Performance of NEXThaler® in Comparison with Diskus® and Turbohaler® Dry Powder Inhalers

Abstract Background: European and United States Pharmacopoeia compendial procedures for assessing the in vitro emitted dose and aerodynamic size distribution of a dry powder inhaler require that 4.0 L of air at a pressure drop of 4 kPa be drawn through the inhaler. However, the product performance should be investigated using conditions more representative of what is achievable by the patient population. This work compares the delivered dose and the drug deposition profile at different flow rates (30, 40, 60, and 90 L/min) of Foster NEXThaler® (beclomethasone dipropionate/formoterol fumarate), Seretide® Diskus® (fluticasone propionate/salmeterol xinafoate), and Symbicort® Turbohaler® (budesonide/formoterol fumarate). Methods: The delivered dose uniformity was tested using a dose unit sampling apparatus (DUSA) at inhalation volumes either 2.0 or 4.0 L and flow rates 30, 40, 60, or 90 L/min. The aerodynamic assessment was carried out using a Next Generation Impactor by discharging each inhaler at 30, 40, 60, or 90 L/min for a time sufficient to obtain an air volume of 4 L. Results: Foster® NEXThaler® and Seretide® Diskus® showed a consistent dose delivery for both the drugs included in the formulation, independently of the applied flow rate. Contrary, Symbicort® Turbohaler® showed a high decrease of the emitted dose for both budesonide and formoterol fumarate when the device was operated at airflow rate lower that 60 L/min. The aerosolizing performance of NEXThaler® and Diskus® was unaffected by the flow rate applied. Turbohaler® proved to be the inhaler most sensitive to changes in flow rate in terms of fine particle fraction (FPF) for both components. Among the combinations tested, Foster NEXThaler® was the only one capable to deliver around 50% of extra-fine particles relative to delivered dose. Conclusions: NEXThaler® and Diskus® were substantially unaffected by flow rate through the inhaler in terms of both delivered dose and fine particle mass.

Overview on gastroretentive drug delivery systems for improving drug bioavailability.

In recent decades, many efforts have been made in order to improve drug bioavailability after oral administration. Gastroretentive drug delivery systems are a good example; they emerged to enhance the bioavailability and effectiveness of drugs with a narrow absorption window in the upper gastrointestinal tract and/or to promote local activity in the stomach and duodenum. Several strategies are used to increase the gastric residence time, namely bioadhesive or mucoadhesive systems, expandable systems, high-density systems, floating systems, superporous hydrogels and magnetic systems. The present review highlights some of the drugs that can benefit from gastroretentive strategies, such as the factors that influence gastric retention time and the mechanism of action of gastroretentive systems, as well as their classification into single and multiple unit systems.

Pure insulin highly respirable powders for inhalation.

The aim of the present research was to investigate the possibility to obtain by spray drying an insulin pulmonary powder respirable and stable at room temperature without the use of excipients. Several insulin spray-dried powders were prepared with or without the addition of excipients (mannitol, bovine serum albumin, aspartic acid) from water dispersions or from acidic aqueous solutions. Each formulation was characterized using laser diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and in vitro aerosol performance with a Turbospin DPI device. Stability was assessed by the quantification of impurities with a molecular mass greater than that of insulin (HMWP) and related proteins (A21+ORP). Insulin powders prepared without excipients from an acid solution showed a shrivelled, raisin-like shape of non-aggregated microparticles and a high respirability (FPF>65%). The optimal result with respect to respirability and stability was reached when the pH of the insulin acetic acid solution to spray dry was adjusted at pH 3.6 with ammonium hydroxide. The median volume diameter of the obtained powder was 4.04 μm, insulin content 95%, emitted dose of 89.5%, MMAD 1.79 μm and fine particle fraction of 83.6%. This powder was stable at room temperature over a period of eighteen months with respect to the content of A21+ORP. As far as the HMWP content was concerned, the powder complied with the specification limits for a period of five months. The insulin acetic powder opens up the possibility of a more effective pulmonary therapy less dependent on refrigerated storage.

Lecithin/chitosan controlled release nanopreparations of tamoxifen citrate: loading, enzyme-trigger release and cell uptake.

Tamoxifen citrate (TAM), an anticancer drug with amphiphilic properties, was loaded in lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles (LCN) with a view to oral administration. The influence of tamoxifen loading on the physico-chemical properties of nanoparticles was studied. Size, surface charge and morphological properties of tamoxifen-loaded nanoparticles (LCN-TAM) were assessed. The increase in the tamoxifen amount in the LCN-TAM preparation up to 60 mg/100 ml maintained the positive zeta potential value of about +45 mV. A statistically significant decrease in particle size was observed for TAM amounts between 5 and 20mg. A strong influence of loaded tamoxifen on the structure of lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles was observed, supported by the quantification of free chitosan and morphological analysis. A loading of tamoxifen in nanoparticles of around 19% was obtained. The release of the drug from the LCN-TAM colloidal dispersion was measured, showing that tamoxifen citrate was released very slowly in simulated gastro-intestinal fluids without enzymes. When enzymes able to dismantle the nanoparticle structure were added to the dissolution medium, drug release was triggered and continued in a prolonged manner. Tamoxifen-loaded nanoparticles showed cytotoxicity towards MCF-7 cells comparable to that obtained with tamoxifen citrate solution, but the rate of this toxic effect was dependent on drug release. Caco-2 cells, used as a model of the intestinal epithelium, were shown to take up the TAM loaded nanoparticles extensively.

Spray-dried amikacin sulphate powder for inhalation in cystic fibrosis patients: The role of ethanol in particle formation.

A Central Composite Design (CCD) was applied in order to identify positive combinations of the production parameters of amikacin sulphate spray-dried powders for inhalation, with the intent to expand the experimental space defined in a previous half-fractional factorial design. Three factors, namely drying temperature, feed rate and ethanol proportion, have been selected out of the initial five. In addition, the levels of these factors were increased from two to three and their effect on amikacin respirability was evaluated. In particular, focus was given on the role of ethanol presence on the formation of the microparticles for inhalation. The overall outcome of the CCD was that amikacin respirability was not substantially improved, as the optimum region coincided with areas already explored with the fractional factorial design. However, expanding the design space towards smaller ethanol levels, including its complete absence, revealed the crucial role of this solvent on the morphology of the produced particles. Peclet number and drug solubility in the spraying solution helped to understand the formation mechanism of these amikacin sulphate spray-dried particles.

Differences in physical chemistry and dissolution rate of solid particle aerosols from solution pressurised inhalers.

Solution composition alters the dynamics of beclomethasone diproprionate (BDP) particle formation from droplets emitted by pressurised metered dose inhalers (pMDIs). The hypothesis that differences in inhaler solutions result in different solid particle physical chemistry was tested using a suite of complementary calorimetric techniques. The atomisation of BDP-ethanol solutions from commercial HFA-pMDI produced aerodynamically-equivalent solid particle aerosols. However, differences in particle physico-chemistry (morphology and solvate/clathrate formation) were detected by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and supported by hot stage microscopy (HSM). Increasing the ethanol content of the formulation from 8 to 12% (w/w), which retards the evaporation of propellant and slows the increase in droplet surface viscosity, enhanced the likelihood of particles drying with a smooth surface. The dissolution rate of BDP from the 12% (w/w) ethanol formulation-derived particles (63% dissolved over 120 min) was reduced compared to the 8% (w/w) ethanol formulation-derived particles (86% dissolved over 120 min). The addition of 0.01% (w/w) formoterol fumarate or 1.3% (w/w) glycerol to the inhaler solution modified the particles and reduced the BDP dissolution rate further to 34% and 16% dissolved in 120 min, respectively. These data provide evidence that therapeutic aerosols from apparently similar inhaler products, including those with similar aerodynamic performance, may behave non-equivalently after deposition in the lungs.

Dry powder inhalation: past, present and future

ABSTRACT Introduction: Early dry powder inhalers (DPIs) were designed for low drug doses in asthma and COPD therapy. Nearly all concepts contained carrier-based formulations and lacked efficient dispersion principles. Therefore, particle engineering and powder processing are increasingly applied to achieve acceptable lung deposition with these poorly designed inhalers. Areas covered: The consequences of the choices made for early DPI development with respect of efficacy, production costs and safety and the tremendous amount of energy put into understanding and controlling the dispersion performance of adhesive mixtures are discussed. Also newly developed particle manufacturing and powder formulation processes are presented as well as the challenges, objectives, and new tools available for future DPI design. Expert opinion: Improved inhaler design is desired to make DPIs for future applications cost-effective and safe. With an increasing interest in high dose drug delivery, vaccination and systemic delivery via the lungs, innovative formulation technologies alone may not be sufficient. Safety is served by increasing patient adherence to the therapy, minimizing the use of unnecessary excipients and designing simple and self-intuitive inhalers, which give good feedback to the patient about the inhalation maneuver. For some applications, like vaccination and delivery of hygroscopic formulations, disposable inhalers may be preferred.