Francesco P. Cappuccio

Potassium intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease a meta-analysis of prospective studies.

Objective To assess the relation between the level of habitual salt intake and stroke or total cardiovascular disease outcome. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies published 1966-2008. Data sources Medline (1966-2008), Embase (from 1988), AMED (from 1985), CINAHL (from 1982), Psychinfo (from 1985), and the Cochrane Library. Review methods For each study, relative risks and 95% confidence intervals were extracted and pooled with a random effect model, weighting for the inverse of the variance. Heterogeneity, publication bias, subgroup, and meta-regression analyses were performed. Criteria for inclusion were prospective adult population study, assessment of salt intake as baseline exposure, assessment of either stroke or total cardiovascular disease as outcome, follow-up of at least three years, indication of number of participants exposed and number of events across different salt intake categories. Results There were 19 independent cohort samples from 13 studies, with 177 025 participants (follow-up 3.5-19 years) and over 11 000 vascular events. Higher salt intake was associated with greater risk of stroke (pooled relative risk 1.23, 95% confidence interval 1.06 to 1.43; P=0.007) and cardiovascular disease (1.14, 0.99 to 1.32; P=0.07), with no significant evidence of publication bias. For cardiovascular disease, sensitivity analysis showed that the exclusion of a single study led to a pooled estimate of 1.17 (1.02 to 1.34; P=0.02). The associations observed were greater the larger the difference in sodium intake and the longer the follow-up. Conclusions High salt intake is associated with significantly increased risk of stroke and total cardiovascular disease. Because of imprecision in measurement of salt intake, these effect sizes are likely to be underestimated. These results support the role of a substantial population reduction in salt intake for the prevention of cardiovascular disease.

Sleep duration predicts cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies

Aims To assess the relationship between duration of sleep and morbidity and mortality from coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, and total cardiovascular disease (CVD). Methods and results We performed a systematic search of publications using MEDLINE (1966-2009), EMBASE (from 1980), the Cochrane Library, and manual searches without language restrictions. Studies were included if they were prospective, follow-up >3 years, had duration of sleep at baseline, and incident cases of CHD, stroke, or CVD. Relative risks (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were pooled using a random-effect model. Overall, 15 studies (24 cohort samples) included 474 684 male and female participants (follow-up 6.9-25 years), and 16 067 events (4169 for CHD, 3478 for stroke, and 8420 for total CVD). Sleep duration was assessed by questionnaire and incident cases through certification and event registers. Short duration of sleep was associated with a greater risk of developing or dying of CHD (RR 1.48, 95% CI 1.22-1.80, P < 0.0001), stroke (1.15, 1.00-1.31, P = 0.047), but not total CVD (1.03, 0.93-1.15, P = 0.52) with no evidence of publication bias (P = 0.95, P = 0.30, and P = 0.46, respectively). Long duration of sleep was also associated with a greater risk of CHD (1.38, 1.15-1.66, P = 0.0005), stroke (1.65, 1.45-1.87, P < 0.0001), and total CVD (1.41, 1.19-1.68, P < 0.0001) with no evidence of publication bias (P = 0.92, P = 0.96, and P = 0.79, respectively). Conclusion Both short and long duration of sleep are predictors, or markers, of cardiovascular outcomes.

Quantity and Quality of Sleep and Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE To assess the relationship between habitual sleep disturbances and the incidence of type 2 diabetes and to obtain an estimate of the risk. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS We conducted a systematic search of publications using MEDLINE (1955–April 2009), EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library and manual searches without language restrictions. We included studies if they were prospective with follow-up >3 years and had an assessment of sleep disturbances at baseline and incidence of type 2 diabetes. We recorded several characteristics for each study. We extracted quantity and quality of sleep, how they were assessed, and incident cases defined with different validated methods. We extracted relative risks (RRs) and 95% CI and pooled them using random-effects models. We performed sensitivity analysis and assessed heterogeneity and publication bias. RESULTS We included 10 studies (13 independent cohort samples; 107,756 male and female participants, follow-up range 4.2–32 years, and 3,586 incident cases of type 2 diabetes). In pooled analyses, quantity and quality of sleep predicted the risk of development of type 2 diabetes. For short duration of sleep (≤5–6 h/night), the RR was 1.28 (95% CI 1.03–1.60, P = 0.024, heterogeneity P = 0.015); for long duration of sleep (>8–9 h/night), the RR was 1.48 (1.13–1.96, P = 0.005); for difficulty in initiating sleep, the RR was 1.57 (1.25–1.97, P < 0.0001); and for difficulty in maintaining sleep, the RR was 1.84 (1.39–2.43, P < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS Quantity and quality of sleep consistently and significantly predict the risk of the development of type 2 diabetes. The mechanisms underlying this relation may differ between short and long sleepers.

Effect of lower sodium intake on health: systematic review and meta-analyses

Objective To assess the effect of decreased sodium intake on blood pressure, related cardiovascular diseases, and potential adverse effects such as changes in blood lipids, catecholamine levels, and renal function. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis. Data sources Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Medline, Embase, WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform, the Latin American and Caribbean health science literature database, and the reference lists of previous reviews. Study selection Randomised controlled trials and prospective cohort studies in non-acutely ill adults and children assessing the relations between sodium intake and blood pressure, renal function, blood lipids, and catecholamine levels, and in non-acutely ill adults all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and coronary heart disease. Study appraisal and synthesis Potential studies were screened independently and in duplicate and study characteristics and outcomes extracted. When possible we conducted a meta-analysis to estimate the effect of lower sodium intake using the inverse variance method and a random effects model. We present results as mean differences or risk ratios, with 95% confidence intervals. Results We included 14 cohort studies and five randomised controlled trials reporting all cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, stroke, or coronary heart disease; and 37 randomised controlled trials measuring blood pressure, renal function, blood lipids, and catecholamine levels in adults. Nine controlled trials and one cohort study in children reporting on blood pressure were also included. In adults a reduction in sodium intake significantly reduced resting systolic blood pressure by 3.39 mm Hg (95% confidence interval 2.46 to 4.31) and resting diastolic blood pressure by 1.54 mm Hg (0.98 to 2.11). When sodium intake was <2 g/day versus ≥2 g/day, systolic blood pressure was reduced by 3.47 mm Hg (0.76 to 6.18) and diastolic blood pressure by 1.81 mm Hg (0.54 to 3.08). Decreased sodium intake had no significant adverse effect on blood lipids, catecholamine levels, or renal function in adults (P>0.05). There were insufficient randomised controlled trials to assess the effects of reduced sodium intake on mortality and morbidity. The associations in cohort studies between sodium intake and all cause mortality, incident fatal and non-fatal cardiovascular disease, and coronary heart disease were non-significant (P>0.05). Increased sodium intake was associated with an increased risk of stroke (risk ratio 1.24, 95% confidence interval 1.08 to 1.43), stroke mortality (1.63, 1.27 to 2.10), and coronary heart disease mortality (1.32, 1.13 to 1.53). In children, a reduction in sodium intake significantly reduced systolic blood pressure by 0.84 mm Hg (0.25 to 1.43) and diastolic blood pressure by 0.87 mm Hg (0.14 to 1.60). Conclusions High quality evidence in non-acutely ill adults shows that reduced sodium intake reduces blood pressure and has no adverse effect on blood lipids, catecholamine levels, or renal function, and moderate quality evidence in children shows that a reduction in sodium intake reduces blood pressure. Lower sodium intake is also associated with a reduced risk of stroke and fatal coronary heart disease in adults. The totality of evidence suggests that most people will likely benefit from reducing sodium intake.

Effects of Long-Term Selenium Supplementation on the Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Trial

Context Research suggests that selenium supplements may improve glucose metabolism. Contribution The investigators examined the incidence of type 2 diabetes among participants in a clinical trial designed to assess the effects of selenium supplementation on skin cancer. Participants randomly assigned to receive selenium were more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than were those assigned to placebo. Cautions Diabetes was a secondary outcome of the original trial. The diagnosis was self-reported, and most participants were older and white. Implication Long-term selenium supplementation appears to increase the risk for type 2 diabetes. The Editors Insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance, and type 2 diabetes are all linked to oxidative stress, which may be the pathogenic mechanism that links these conditions to cardiovascular disease (1). Observational epidemiologic studies show a protective association of dietary or plasma antioxidants against the development of type 2 diabetes (2, 3). However, the few clinical trials that have examined the efficacy of antioxidant supplementation in the prevention of type 2 diabetes or its complications have had negative results (46). Experimental evidence from animal models suggests that supplementation with low doses of the antioxidant selenium may exert beneficial effects on glucose metabolism, possibly through many insulin-like actions, and may delay complications of diabetes. The effects of high-dose selenium supplements, however, are less clear (710). Some studies in patients with diabetes suggest that selenium supplementation may help to prevent vascular complications (11) and that diabetic patients may be deficient in selenium relative to healthy persons (12). Conversely, recent findings from the SU.VI.MAX (Supplementation with Antioxidant Vitamins and Minerals) study (13) showed no effect of supplementation with a combination of antioxidants, including selenium (100 g/d), on fasting plasma glucose levels after 7.5 years of follow-up. Because no randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials to date have tested the effect of long-term supplementation with selenium alone (200 g/d) on the risk for type 2 diabetes, we examined the efficacy of selenium supplementation in preventing new-onset type 2 diabetes in the NPC (Nutritional Prevention of Cancer) trial, a randomized, double-blind clinical trial designed primarily to evaluate the efficacy of selenium supplementation for prevention of cancer (14, 15). Specifically, we assessed the incidence of type 2 diabetes as a secondary end point throughout the blinded phase of the trial (19831996) among participants who did not have type 2 diabetes at baseline (n= 1202). Methods Design and Participants The rationale, design, and methods of the NPC trial are described in detail elsewhere (14). In brief, the NPC trial was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 1312 participants who were recruited in 1983 to 1991 from 7 dermatology clinics in areas of low selenium consumption of the eastern United States. Randomization was blocked by time and stratified by clinic. Persons were eligible if they had a confirmed history of nonmelanoma skin cancer in the year before randomization, had an estimated life expectancy of 5 years, and had no reported internal cancer in the previous 5 years. Participants with a history of clinically important liver or kidney disorders were excluded. Because the primary aim of the trial was to determine the effects of selenium supplementation on nonmelanoma skin cancer, we excluded nonwhite persons. This restriction served to control the effects of skin pigmentation on the risk for skin cancer recurrence. As a result, almost all participants in the NPC trial were non-Hispanic white persons; about 1.4% (n= 18) of persons who were randomly allocated were identified as Hispanic, and some persons were from other ethnic groups. Although recruitment was sex-neutral, about three quarters of the participants were male. Of the 1316 persons recruited, random assignment was successful for 1312. At the end of the blinded treatment period on 1 February 1996, no participant was lost to vital follow-up, generating a total of 9301 person-years of follow-up. Self-reported adherence indicated that 79.3% of participants (80.3% in the placebo group and 78.4% in the selenium group) adhered to the intervention (16). This was corroborated by the fact that plasma selenium levels remained constant throughout the trial in the placebo group but were substantially higher in the selenium group (Figure 1). Figure 1. Mean plasma selenium levels. We analyzed only participants with a valid baseline selenium value obtained within 4 days from the date of randomization (1250 of 1312 participants), a decision that is consistent with previously published studies from the NPC trial (1517). Baseline characteristics of the total NPC cohort of 1312 participants and the subsample of 1250 participants with valid baseline selenium levels did not statistically significantly differ (17), and our findings did not change substantially when analyses were expanded to include all 1312 participants (data not reported). We focus on the 1202 participants who did not have type 2 diabetes at baseline (600 selenium recipients and 602 placebo recipients). Ascertainment of prevalent type 2 diabetes at baseline was based on a self-reported diagnosis of type 2 diabetes before randomization, with subsequent evaluation of medical records (48 cases [21 in the selenium group and 27 in the placebo group]). Figure 2 shows the flow diagram of the NPC participants included in our analysis. Figure 2. Flow diagram of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial, 19831996. Clinical Examination and Laboratory Methods The intervention agent was 200 g of selenium daily, supplied in a 0.5-g, high-selenium bakers yeast tablet provided by Nutrition 21 (La Jolla, California) through 1995 and by Cypress Systems (Fresno, California) thereafter. The placebo group received a tablet containing yeast only. Selenium and placebo pills were coated with titanium oxide to ensure identical appearance and smell. Each patient was assigned a unique sequential treatment number. Treatment group assignment was made centrally by using sealed identical pill bottles that were distributed at the clinic. The coordinating center held all treatment information in blinded form (14). The selenium content of each batch of pills was determined in the laboratories of Dr. Combs and of I.S. Palmer, MD (South Dakota State University, Brookings, South Dakota), by the diaminonapthalene fluorometric procedure after nitricperchloric acid digestion (18). Plasma selenium level was determined in the laboratory of Dr. Combs by using an automated electrothermal atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer 3030, Perkin-Elmer, Norwalk, Connecticut) equipped with an electrodeless discharge lamp and automatic Zeeman-effect background correction. Quality control included multiple aliquots of human plasma as external control samples. A coefficient of variation less than 7% (for duplicate analyses) was the criterion for acceptance (19). Participants visited their respective clinics biannually to provide blood samples and report new illnesses and medications. Patient medical records from both study and nonstudy visits were periodically reviewed to ensure completeness and accuracy. At the baseline interview, data were collected on sociodemographic, anthropometric, and behavioral characteristics, including education (0 to 18 years), body mass index (BMI), use of vitamin supplements, alcohol consumption (drinks consumed per day), smoking status (never, former, or current), and pack-years of smoking. For participants who became inactive, annual monitoring was attempted by using the National Death Index and ChoicePoint Services (formerly Equifax, Atlanta, Georgia) to determine vital status and identify diagnoses of new illnesses. Ascertainment of Type 2 Diabetes and Follow-up Participants who had a new diagnosis of type 2 diabetes during the blinded phase of the trial (15 September 1983 to 1 February 1996) were noted. The initial report of diabetes came from 3 sources: self-report during the clinical interview, reported use of drugs for diabetes, and reports in medical record documents. Medical record requests were then sent to the primary physicians for every patient with a report. This process of requesting and reviewing documentation was done in a blinded manner. About 92% of these reports, regardless of source, were corroborated with medical record documentation, as determined by registered nurse reviewers. Person-years of follow-up were accrued from the date of randomization as the start date to the date of an incident case of type 2 diabetes, the date of death, or the end of the blinded period of the trial. Statistical Analysis For continuous and categorical variables, we used t tests and chi-square tests, respectively, to determine the statistical significance of any difference in the distribution of baseline variables between treatment groups. Cumulative incidence curves of type 2 diabetes by treatment group were constructed by comparing NelsonAalen cumulative hazard function estimates that were calculated at different time points of the trial and by using the 2-sided log-rank test (20). In unadjusted analyses, incidence data were statistically analyzed by calculating relative risks as the ratios of the incidence density for the treatment groups, with corresponding 95% CIs. P values were derived from log-rank tests. In adjusted analyses, hazard ratios and 95% CIs were calculated by using the Cox proportional hazard model, which allowed adjustment for age, BMI (continuous variable), sex, and smoking status at baseline as covariates. We decided a priori to adjust for these diabetes risk factors regardless of whether they differed between treatment groups. Tests of proportional hazards assumptions were based on S

Blood pressure control by home monitoring: meta-analysis of randomised trials

Abstract Objective To determine the effect of home blood pressure monitoring on blood pressure levels and proportion of people with essential hypertension achieving targets. Design Meta-analysis of 18 randomised controlled trials. Participants 1359 people with essential hypertension allocated to home blood pressure monitoring and 1355 allocated to the “control” group seen in the healthcare system for 2-36 months. Main outcome measures Differences in systolic (13 studies), diastolic (16 studies), or mean (3 studies) blood pressures, and proportion of patients achieving targets (6 studies), between intervention and control groups. Results Systolic blood pressure was lower in people with hypertension who had home blood pressure monitoring than in those who had standard blood pressure monitoring in the healthcare system (standardised mean difference 4.2 (95% confidence interval 1.5 to 6.9) mm Hg), diastolic blood pressure was lower by 2.4 (1.2 to 3.5) mm Hg, and mean blood pressure was lower by 4.4 (2.0 to 6.8) mm Hg. The relative risk of blood pressure above predetermined targets was lower in people with home blood pressure monitoring (risk ratio 0.90, 0.80 to 1.00). When publication bias was allowed for, the differences were attenuated: 2.2 (−0.9 to 5.3) mm Hg for systolic blood pressure and 1.9 (0.6 to 3.2) mm Hg for diastolic blood pressure. Conclusions Blood pressure control in people with hypertension (assessed in the clinic) and the proportion achieving targets are increased when home blood pressure monitoring is used rather than standard blood pressure monitoring in the healthcare system. The reasons for this are not clear. The difference in blood pressure control between the two methods is small but likely to contribute to an important reduction in vascular complications in the hypertensive population.

Prevalence, detection, and management of cardiovascular risk factors in different ethnic groups in south London.

Objective To assess the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and their level of detection and management in three ethnic groups. Design Population based survey during 1994 to 1996. Setting Former Wandsworth Health Authority in South London. Subjects 1578 men and women, aged 40 to 59 years; 524 white, 549 of African descent, and 505 of South Asian origin. Main outcome measures Age adjusted prevalence of hypertension, diabetes, obesity, raised serum cholesterol, and smoking. Results Ethnic minorities of both sexes had raised prevalence rates of hypertension and diabetes compared to white people. Age and sex standardised prevalence ratios for hypertension were 2.6 (95% confidence interval 2.1 to 3.2) in people of African descent and 1.8 (1.4 to 2.3) in those of South Asian origin. For diabetes, the ratios were 2.7 (1.8 to 4.0) in people of African descent and 3.8 (2.6 to 5.6) in those of South Asian origin. Hypertension and diabetes were equally common among Caribbeans and West Africans and among South Asian Hindus and Muslims. Prevalence of severe obesity was high overall, but particularly among women of African descent (40% (35% to 45%)). In contrast, raised serum cholesterol and smoking rates were higher among white people. Of hypertensives, 49% (216 of 442) had adequate blood pressure control. Overall, 18% (80 of 442) of hypertensives and 33% (62 of 188) of diabetics were undetected before our survey. Hypertensive subjects of African descent appeared more likely to have been detected (p = 0.034) but less likely to be adequately managed (p = 0.085). Conclusions Hypertension and diabetes are raised two- to threefold in South Asians, Caribbeans, and West Africans in Britain. Detection, management, and control of hypertension has improved, but there are still differences between ethnic groups. Obesity is above the Health of the Nation targets in all ethnic groups, particularly in women of African descent. Preventive and treatment strategies for different ethnic groups in Britain need to consider both cultural differences and underlying susceptibility to different vascular diseases.

Gender-specific associations of short sleep duration with prevalent and incident hypertension: the Whitehall II Study.

Sleep deprivation (≤5 hour per night) was associated with a higher risk of hypertension in middle-aged American adults but not among older individuals. However, the outcome was based on self-reported diagnosis of incident hypertension, and no gender-specific analyses were included. We examined cross-sectional and prospective associations of sleep duration with prevalent and incident hypertension in a cohort of 10 308 British civil servants aged 35 to 55 years at baseline (phase 1: 1985–1988). Data were gathered from phase 5 (1997–1999) and phase 7 (2003–2004). Sleep duration and other covariates were assessed at phase 5. At both examinations, hypertension was defined as blood pressure ≥140/90 mm Hg or regular use of antihypertensive medications. In cross-sectional analyses at phase 5 (n=5766), short duration of sleep (≤5 hour per night) was associated with higher risk of hypertension compared with the group sleeping 7 hours, among women (odds ratio: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.13 to 3.58), independent of confounders, with an inverse linear trend across decreasing hours of sleep (P=0.003). No association was detected in men. In prospective analyses (mean follow-up: 5 years), the cumulative incidence of hypertension was 20.0% (n=740) among 3691 normotensive individuals at phase 5. In women, short duration of sleep was associated with a higher risk of hypertension in a reduced model (age and employment) (6 hours per night: odds ratio: 1.56 [95% CI: 1.07 to 2.27]; ≤5 hour per night: odds ratio: 1.94 [95% CI: 1.08 to 3.50] versus 7 hours). The associations were attenuated after accounting for cardiovascular risk factors and psychiatric comorbidities (odds ratio: 1.42 [95% CI: 0.94 to 2.16]; odds ratio: 1.31 [95% CI: 0.65 to 2.63], respectively). Sleep deprivation may produce detrimental cardiovascular effects among women.

High blood pressure and bone-mineral loss in elderly white women: a prospective study

Summary Background High blood pressure is associated with abnormalities in calcium metabolism. Sustained calcium loss may lead to increased bone-mineral loss in people with high blood pressure. We investigated the prospective association between blood pressure and bone-mineral loss over time in elderly white women. Methods We studied 3676 women who were initially assessed in 1988–90 (mean age 73 years [SD 4, range 66–91 years]; mean bodyweight 65·3 kg [11·5]; blood pressure 137/75 mm Hg [17/9]) who were not on thiazide diuretics. Mean follow-up was 3·5 years. Anthropometry, blood pressure, and bone-mineral density at the femoral neck were measured at baseline and bone densitometry was repeated after 3·5 years by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Findings After adjustment for age, initial bone-mineral density, weight and weight change, smoking, and regular use of hormone-replacement therapy, the rate of bone loss at the femoral neck increased with blood pressure at baseline. In the quartiles of systolic blood pressure, year bone losses increased from 2·26 mg/cm2 (95% CI 1·48–3·04) in the first quartile to 3·79 mg/cm2 in the fourth quartile (3·13–4·45; test for heterogeneity, p=0·03; test for linear trend, p=0·01), equivalent to yearly changes of 0·34%(0·20–0·46) and 0·59% (0·49–0·69; test for heterogeneity, p=0·02; test for linear trend, p=0·005). There was no significant interaction with age. The exclusion of women on antihypertensive drugs did not alter the results. For diastolic blood pressure, there was an association with bone loss in women younger than 75 years. Interpretation Higher blood pressure in elderly white women is associated with increased bone loss at the femoral neck.This association may reflect greater calcium losses associated with high blood pressure, which may contribute to the risk of hip fractures.

Does potassium supplementation lower blood pressure ? A meta-analysis of published trials

Both epidemiologic and clinical studies have suggested that an increase in potassium intake may lower blood pressure. However, the results of prospective clinical trials looking at the effect of oral potassium supplements on blood pressure have yielded conflicting results. For this reason, we reviewed 19 clinical trials examining the same end-point and involving a total of 586 participants (412 of whom had essential hypertension). Overall, the results of the trials indicate that oral potassium supplements significantly lower systolic blood pressure [-5.9 mmHg, -6.6 to -5.2 mmHg (mean, 95% confidence interval)] and diastolic blood pressure (-3.4 mmHg, -4.0 to 2.8 mmHg). The magnitude of the blood pressure lowering effect is greater in patients with high blood pressure (-8.2 mmHg, -9.1 to -7.3 mmHg for systolic and -4.5 mmHg, -5.2 to -3.8 mmHg for diastolic blood pressure) and appears to be more pronounced the longer the duration of the supplementation (P less than 0.05 and P less than 0.01 for systolic and diastolic, respectively). Based on this analysis, an increase in potassium intake should be included in the recommendations for a non-pharmacological approach to the control of blood pressure in uncomplicated essential hypertension.