Francis M. Hueber

Phytochemical and genetic analyses of ancient cannabis from Central Asia

The Yanghai Tombs near Turpan, Xinjiang-Uighur Autonomous Region, China have recently been excavated to reveal the 2700-year-old grave of a Caucasoid shaman whose accoutrements included a large cache of cannabis, superbly preserved by climatic and burial conditions. A multidisciplinary international team demonstrated through botanical examination, phytochemical investigation, and genetic deoxyribonucleic acid analysis by polymerase chain reaction that this material contained tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive component of cannabis, its oxidative degradation product, cannabinol, other metabolites, and its synthetic enzyme, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase, as well as a novel genetic variant with two single nucleotide polymorphisms. The cannabis was presumably employed by this culture as a medicinal or psychoactive agent, or an aid to divination. To our knowledge, these investigations provide the oldest documentation of cannabis as a pharmacologically active agent, and contribute to the medical and archaeological record of this pre-Silk Road culture.

Rotted wood–alga–fungus: the history and life of Prototaxites Dawson 1859

Abstract The Devonian flora discovered and collected by W.E. Logan in 1843 remained unstudied until 1855 at which time the collections were offered to J.W. Dawson. His attention was immediately drawn to a single large specimen in the collections, which he identified and described as partially rotted wood of a conifer ( Dawson, 1857 ). He proposed the name Prototaxites ( Dawson, 1859 ) thereby expressing his concept of the genus. That concept remained unchallenged until Carruthers (1872) heatedly ridiculed both the name and the author and illegitimately substituted the name Nematophycus . His subjective opinion was that the fossil represented a fragment of a very large alga, like Lessonia . His classification, challenged only once ( Church, 1919 ), persisted in all subsequent reports. Dawson remained adamant in his definition of Prototaxites until he illegitimately substituted the name Nematophyton for Prototaxites ( Dawson, 1888 ) and denied ( Dawson, in Penhallow, 1889 ) that he had ever classed the genus with the conifers. The names Nematophycus and Nematophyton are later synonyms of Prototaxites and, although inappropriate in connotation, Prototaxites is nomenclaturally valid. No undoubted original nor associated specimens are available for choice of a lectotype. This report has a triple purpose: (1) to name, as neotype, a recognizable specimen collected by Dawson for which the locality and stratigraphic data are known, (2) to redescribe the genus as structurally composed of three interactive forms of hyphae, i.e. large thin-walled, septate, branching, generative hyphae; large thick-walled, non-septate, skeletal hyphae; and small thin-walled, septate, branching, binding hyphae, which combine to form a gigantic, phototropic, amphigenous, perennial sporophore with saprobic nutrition, and (3) to classify it in the Kingdom Fungi. Generic synonymy with Prototaxites is proposed for Nematophycus ( Carruthers, 1872 ).

Devonian Landscape Heterogeneity Recorded by a Giant Fungus

The enigmatic Paleozoic fossil Prototaxites [Dawson 1859][1] consists of tree-like trunks as long as 8 m constructed of interwoven tubes <50 mm in diameter. Prototaxites specimens from five localities differ from contemporaneous vascular plants by exhibiting a carbon isotopic range, within and between localities, of as much as 13‰ δ13C. Pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry highlights compositional differences between Prototaxites and co-occurring plant fossils and supports interpretation of isotopic distinctions as biological rather than diagenetic in origin. Such a large isotopic range is difficult to reconcile with an autotrophic metabolism, suggesting instead that, consistent with anatomy-based interpretation as a fungus, Prototaxites was a heterotroph that lived on isotopically heterogeneous substrates. Light isotopic values of Prototaxites approximate those of vascular plants from the same localities; in contrast, heavy extremes seen in the Lower Devonian appear to reflect consumption of primary producers with carbon-concentrating mechanisms, such as cryptobiotic soil crusts, or possibly bryophytes. Prototaxites biogeochemistry thus suggests that a biologically heterogeneous mosaic of primary producers characterized land surfaces well into the vascular plant era. [1]: #ref-10

The anatomy of Pseudosporochnus: P. Hueberi from the Devonian of New York

Abstract Eight structurally preserved specimens originally called Cladoxylon onteorense nom. nud. Hueber 1959, from Hensonville, New York, Cladoxylon dichotomum nom. nud. Hueber 1960 from East Ashland, N.Y., and Cladoxylon hueberi Matten 1974 from East Ashland and Cairo, N.Y., are analyzed in detail for their morphological and systematic significance. The type of C. hueberi from East Ashland, by far the most important specimen, provides the first opportunity in any Devonian member of the Cladoxylopsida for a realistic three-dimensional assessment of the primary xylem system. A main axis contains a highly dissected primary xylem system with 40–50 longitudinally anastomosing primary xylem segments. Distally, the main axis dichotomizes producing two equal branches with 20–25 xylem segments each. The outermost primary xylem consists of a system of radially oriented tracheid plates variously interconnected toward the inside, each with a conspicuous protoxylem strand near the xylem periphery. Traces to densely and three-dimensionally, but not helically, arranged lateral appendages depart singly or in groups of two or three from one to three adjacent peripheral-radial xylem plates. Although direct evidence on the external morphology of lateral appendages is not preserved, many trace groups exhibit conspicuous bilateral symmetry consistent with the interpretation of planate lateral appendages similar to those described for Pseudosporochnus nodosus . Other trace groups may indicate more three-dimensional lateral appendages. One sub-opposite pair of clepsydroid traces is borne at right angles to, and in obvious relationship with, the dichotomy of the main axis. Cortex is heterogeneous, consisting of thin-walled parenchyma with embedded clusters of sclereids and thick-walled parenchyma. These clusters appear responsible for a regular pattern of bumps or pits in compressed regions of the specimen and are closely comparable to those observed in Pseudosporochnus nodosus . A systematic analysis, attempting to view fragmentary evidence from both compressions and permineralizations in a single coherent framework, leads us to hypothesize assignment of the East Ashland and Hensoville specimens to the genus Pseudosporochnus . Although supported by the evidence, the hypothesis of assignment is by no means proven. We propose it, however, because we think that advancing systematic hypotheses conspicuously at risk of being refuted by additional observation promotes far greater understanding than taking an agnostic stance toward systematics implied by the use of “form” taxa. We further clarify our position by suggesting specific observations likely to be made from fossil specimens that might refute our hypothesis.

Rebuchia ovata, its vegetative morphology and classification with the zosterophyllophytina

Abstract The vegetative morphology of Rebuchia ovata (Dorf) Hueber consists of a smooth, dichotomously branching axis in which the branches are tapered to bluntly pointed tips. Basal portions of the plant remain unknown. Round, unornamented spores have been isolated from the sporangia. The spike of sporangia, typical of the genus, exhibits a well developed dorsiventral form that results from the uniformly compact arrangement of the sporangia in two rows along one side of the axis. The sporangia arranged oppositely to suboppositely and distichously, are directed around to one side of the axis by curvature of the stalks supporting them. The morphology of the spike is unique among members of the Zosterophyllophytina. The form of the spike in combination with the characters of the vegetative portions of the plant is sufficient evidence to maintain the identity of the genus rather than relegate it to synonymy with Zosterophyllum . The species Rebuchia mucronata (Hoeg) Hueber is placed in synonymy with R. ovata . The genera that comprise the Zosterophyllophytina, i.e., Zosterophyllum, Rebuchia, Sawdonia, Gosslingia and Crenaticaulis , are so closely related by characters of the sporangia, vegetative parts and anatomy, where known, that I do not support the proposal to divide them between two families. Evidence that is summarized here suggests that significant divergence of characters is not adequate to establish another family beyond the Zosterophyllaceae. The only separation that seems practical in light of present knowledge of the group is on the basis of the spiral or bilateral arrangement of the sporangia on the fertile axes. Zosterophyllum is divided here into two sub-genera, the sub-genus Zosterophyllum and the subgenus Platy-zosterophyllum . The genera Gosslingia, Sawdonia and Crenaticaulis are treated as ones in which the distribution of their sporangia in relationship to the whole plant is undetermined or undescribed. The geologic range of Rebuchia , based on current information, is Siegenian-Emsian (mid- and upper Lower Devonian). Identificationsof the genus in younger strata are questionable.

Symplocopteris wyattii n. gen. et n. sp.: a zygopterid fern with a false trunk from the Tournaisian (Lower Carboniferous) of Queensland, Australia

Abstract Fossil remains of a fern were collected from the basalmost Carboniferous Tournaisian, Hardwick Formation of Queensland, Australia. The fern is described as an erect false trunk composed of intertwined branch systems and phyllophores embedded in a mesh of adventitious roots. The base of the trunk attained up to 50 cm in diameter and was composed almost totally of roots. Branching of the stems is isotomous. Each subsequent branch gives rise to a phyllophore and a geotropic adventitious root. Smaller roots arise from the bases of the phyllophores, as well as the larger roots, and all are covered with hairs and are directed horizontally. The two forms of roots are functionally complementary, the larger for support and absorption of water from the soil, the smaller for absorption in the humidity within the trunk. The repetitive branching of the stems concomitant with the increase of phyllophores and the two forms of adventitious roots comprised the oldest tree fern with false trunk known to this time. The phyllophores have no apparent phyllotaxy and many are abortive before reaching the exterior of the trunk. The cauline xylem strand, in transverse section, is a solid centrarch protostele while the phyllophore traces are simple and clepsydroid in outline. Xylem strands in the roots have four, rarely three or five, exarch protoxylem points. The combination of the very primitive anatomy with the arborescent habit is unique and the name Symplocopteris wyattii n. gen. et n. sp. is proposed. This plant is the oldest known zygopterid fern showing the clear anatomical and morphological distinction between stems, leaves and roots.

Buried in sands: environmental analysis at the archaeological site of Xiaohe cemetery, Xinjiang, China.

Palynomorphs extracted from the mud coffins and plant remains preserved at the archaeological site of Xiaohe Cemetery (Cal. 3980 to 3540 years BP) in Lop Nur Desert of Xinjiang, China were investigated for the reconstruction of the ancient environments at the site. The results demonstrate that the Xiaohe People lived at a well-developed oasis, which was surrounded by extensive desert. The vegetation in the oasis consisted of Populus , Phragmites , Typha and probably of Gramineae, while the desert surrounding the oasis had some common drought-resistant plants dominated by Ephedra , Tamarix , Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae. This present work provides the first data of the environmental background at this site for further archaeological investigation.

Pollen and Phytoliths from Fired Ancient Potsherds as Potential Indicators for Deciphering Past Vegetation and Climate in Turpan, Xinjiang, NW China

It is demonstrated that palynomorphs can occur in fired ancient potsherds when the firing temperature was under 350°C. Pollen and phytoliths recovered from incompletely fired and fully fired potsherds (ca. 2700 yrs BP) from the Yanghai Tombs, Turpan, Xinjiang, NW China can be used as potential indicators for reconstructing past vegetation and corresponding climate in the area. The results show a higher rate of recovery of pollen and phytoliths from incompletely fired potsherds than from fully fired ones. Charred phytoliths recovered from both fully fired and incompletely fired potsherds prove that degree and condition of firing result in a permanent change in phytolith color. The palynological data, together with previous data of macrobotanical remains from the Yanghai Tombs, suggest that temperate vegetation and arid climatic conditions dominated in the area ca. 2700 yrs BP.

Cervicornus wenshanensis, gen. et sp. nov, a Pragian (Early Devonian) plant with forked leaves from Yunnan, China

Cervicornus wenshanensis gen. et sp. nov. is described from compressions of leaf-bearing, vegetative stems of Pragian age (Early Devonian). Stelar anatomy is not preserved. The plant is described as herbaceous with leaves arranged in openly spaced helices. The distal portion of each of the leaves is divided three times, resulting in eight segments resembling the antler of a deer. The arrangement and morphology of the leaves suggest a possible relationship with the lycopsid family Protolepidodendraceae in which, among the genera, the leaves are helically arranged and variously divided. Additionally, the members of the family are united on the basis of stelar anatomy and the presence of sporangia. Neither of the latter characteristics, which are essential to the unequivocal assignment to the family, are preserved in Cervicornus. The genus is a noteworthy morphological variant among Devonian plants, but the arrangement of the leaves and their morphology cannot be used alone to infer an affinity with a taxon of higher rank. As with many other fragmentary paleobotanical entities, lacking sufficient definitive characteristics and awaiting discovery and description of additional specimens, we have proposed a classification of this new genus and species as incertae sedis.

An Eocene fossil tree with cambial variant wood structure

Abstract Fossil wood with “anomalous structure” is reported from the Eocene of Louisiana and Texas. Superficially the wood appears to have diffuse (foraminate) included phloem, but what appear to be bundles of included phloem are bundles of parenchyma surrounding structures that resemble traumatic canals. These structures are of regular occurrence and distribution and, therefore, differ from traumatic canals which are irregular in distribution. Sieve elements and companion cells were not observed in the bundles. There appears to be no modern structural counterpart to this wood. Included phloem is considered a derived character and this type of Eocene tree might represent a “precursor” to diffuse included phloem. The wood has characteristics of both Nyctaginaceae and Loganiaceae.