Francisco Alcaraz

What is in a name? The need for accurate scientific nomenclature for plants

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE To avoid ambiguities and error, ethnopharmacological and any other research on plants requires precise and appropriate use of botanical scientific nomenclature. AIMS This paper explores problems and impacts of ambiguous or erroneous use of botanical scientific nomenclature in ethnopharmacological studies. It suggests how the frequency and impact of such errors can be reduced. APPROACH AND METHODS We assessed 214 articles published in the three first volumes of the Journal of Ethnopharmacology in 2012: 140(1) to 141 (3) and 214 articles in Phytomedicine (2012-2013): 19 (5) to 20 (7). RESULTS Amongst the articles reviewed 308 articles cited plant names incorrectly. Among the articles studied 9178 Latin scientific names were cited and 3445 were incorrect in some respect. Simple principles applied in a systematic way and used together with open-access reference resources could help authors, referees and editors of ethnopharmacological, phytochemical, toxicological and clinical studies to reduce ambiguity about the identity and name of the species involved and thus significantly improve the quality of the final publication. CONCLUSIONS We have identified a series of key steps needed to solve the taxonomic ambiguities and errors. Aside from reinforcing existing policies, journals will have to implement better tools to ensure the proper authentication of materials. The new electronic publishing environments offer novel ways to develop such botanical-taxonomic tools.

Review of Food and Medicinal Uses of Capparis L. Subgenus Capparis (Capparidaceae)

Capers of commerce are immature flower buds which have been pickled either in vinegar or preserved in granular salt. Semi-mature fruits and young shoots with small leaves may also be pickled for use as a condiment. The use of capers can be traced to the prehistory. Although Capparis spinosa from the western Mediterranean is the most widely used species, the subgenus comprises 23 species and subspecies occupying large territories from the Atlantic coasts to the Pacific in the Old World. We have recorded medicinal and food uses for 19 species.RésuméLas alcaparras del comercio son botones florales encurtidos en vinagre o preservados en sal gruesa. Los frutos inmaduros y los brotes tiernos provistos de hojitas también se utilizan encurtidos como condimento. El uso de las alcaparras se remonta hasta la prehistoria. Aunque la especie Capparis spinosa, que habita la region mediterrdnea occidental es la mas utilizada, el subgenero comprende 23 especies y subespecies que se extienden desde las costas Atlánticas hasta el Pacífico en Africa, Asia, Europa y Oceanía. Se han registrado usos para 19 especies y subespecies, que son de interés alimentario y medicinal.

AFLP fingerprinting in Capparis subgenus Capparis related to the commercial sources of capers

A genetic fingerprinting technique (AFLP) was used to determine the relationships among Capparis spp. Genetic distances, based on AFLP data were estimated for 45 accessions of Capparis species, from Spain, Morocco and Syria. The results of this analysis support the differentiation of four of the five taxa involved. The group of plants recognised as C. spinosa on the basis of morphological characters, includes several cultivars and appears in an intermediate position between C. orientalis and C. sicula and overlaps with C. orientalis. The other two species C. aegyptia and C. ovata are separate from the rest. Capparis spinosa had a low number of unique bands in comparison with the other species. Although these results cannot confirm the hybrid origin of C. spinosa, the distribution of the bands supports this hypothesis, the most likely parental species being C. orientalis and C. sicula.

Major plant communities of warm North American deserts

A syntaxonomic study of the major plant communi- ties in neotropical North American deserts (Sonoran, Mojave and Baja California Deserts) is presented. The field method of the Braun-Blanquet approach was combined with a numerical syntaxonomical analysis (cluster analysis and principal coor- dinate ordination). 21 associations are described for the first time: Ambrosio chenopodifoliae-Larreetum tridentatae, Acamptopappo sphaerocephali-Larreetum tridentatae, Hymenocleo monogyrae-Baccharidetum glutinosae, Bergero- cacto emoryi-Agavetum shawii, Burseretum hindsiano- microphyllae, Cercidio microphylli-Carnegieetum giganteae, Bursero microphyllae-Cyrtocarpetum edulis, Hymenocleo salsolae-Daleetum spinosae, Echinocereo engelmannii- Agavetum deserti, Euphorbio californicae-Fouquierietum diguetii, Fouquierio splendentis-Larreetum tridentatae, Agavo cerulatae-Idrietum columnaris, Mascagnio macropterae- Lysilometum candidae, Maytenetum phyllanthoidis, Opuntio basilaris-Larreetum tridentatae, Prosopidetum torreyanae, Roso minutifoliae-Aesculetum parryi, Opuntio taponae- Agavetum subcerulatae, Tidestromio oblongifoliae-Atripli- cetum hymenelytrae, Eurotio lanatae-Larreetum tridentatae and Yucco validae-Fouquierietum diguetii. Some associations include subassociations. Ecological, biogeographical and floristic bioclimatic data are given for each association.

Vegetation formations and associations of the zonobiomes along the North American Pacific coast

This phytosociological study, carried out according to the Braun-Blanquet method and supported by cluster analysis, describes Walters zonobiomes along the North American Pacific coast between British Columbia (Canada) and Baja California Sur (Mexico). Fourteen floristic associations have been identified and each is characterized by a unique floristic combination, a distinctive geographical range and particular bioclimatic conditions.

VEGETATION FORMATIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS OF THE ZONOBIOMES ALONG THE NORTH AMERICAN PACIFIC COAST : FROM NORTHERN CALIFORNIA TO ALASKA

This phytosociological study, carried out according to the Braun–Blanquet method and supported by cluster analysis, describes Walters zonobiomes along the North American Pacific coast between the California–Oregon state border and Alaska (USA), including some interior zones of British Columbia and the Yukon Territory (Canada). Twenty two floristic associations are identified and each is characterized by a unique floristic combination, a distinctive geographical range and particular bioclimatic or edaphic conditions.

Production of an anthocyanin‐rich food colourant from Thymus moroderi and its application in foods

BACKGROUND Anthocyanins and other polyphenols from flowers and bracts of Thymus sp. are studied. An anthocyanin-rich food colourant with interesting high antioxidant activity from Thymus moroderi has been obtained, and applied to colour foods. RESULTS Anthocyanins and other polyphenols from T. moroderi and another five Thymus sp. were extracted in methanol/hydrochloric acid 0.1 mol L(-1) (50/50, v/v) 2 h stirring at 50 °C. They were identified and quantified by HPLC-PDA-MS and UHPLC-PDA-fluorescence, as total individual polyphenols. Total polyphenols were also determined. Flowers had higher anthocyanins and other polyphenols concentrations than bracts; for example, total polyphenols content of T. moroderi were 131.58 and 61.98 g GAE kg(-1) vegetal tissue, respectively. A liquid concentrated colourant was obtained from T. moroderi using water/citric acid as solvent. It was characterised and compared with other two commercial anthocyanin-rich food colourants from red grape skin and red carrot (colour strength of 1.7 and 3.6 AU, respectively). T. moroderi colourant had 1.2 AU colour strength, and high storage stability (>97.1% remaining colour after 110 days at 4 °C). It showed a higher polyphenols content than commercial colourants. Its antioxidant activity was 0.707 mmol Trolox eq. g(-1) plant dry weight, 69.5 times higher than red carrot. The three colourants were applied to colour yogurts, giving pinky tonalities. The colour did not change evidently (ΔE*(ab)  < 3) when stored under refrigeration during 1 month. CONCLUSIONS T. moroderi can be a source of anthocyanin-rich food colourant (E-163) with both high polyphenols content and high antioxidant activity. This colourant gives a stable colour to a yogurt during 1 month. These results expand the use of natural colourants.

The coastal salt marshes of California and Baja California

A comparative study of the North American salt marshes between Magdalena Plain (Baja California, 24° N)_and the north of San Francisco (California 38° N) is made in order to establish relationships between floristic and zonal gradients. The sigmatistic-phytosociological method along with Average Linkage Clustering are used to describe the zonation of these salt marshes and to define the optimum zone of several halophilous plants and communities.

Date Palm Status and Perspective in Spain

The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is an archaeophyte in Spain and is the iconic species of an introduced mixed irrigated agricultural system of food crops, animal feed, grasses, and livestock. Traditionally, date palms are propagated from seed and grown for their fruits, as well as for products derived from the leaves and stem wood. The seedling date palm populations in Spain represent a diverse pool of genetic resources with potential to improve the crop in general. Depending on the local microclimate, 20–50 % of date fruits in Spain do not fully ripen on the tree because of cooler temperatures late in the growing season. Artificial ripening techniques have been devised to deal with this situation. Local genotypes are under study for the best fruit types for expanded marketing, as a gourmet fresh fruit product in Europe, to enhance farmer income and to sustain the traditional production system. Tissue culture of selected genotypes is contributing to sustainability of the palm groves. New commercial date products are under study to broaden economic possibilities. The exotic red palm weevil pest represents the main threat to the palm grove and control measures are being pursued. Historic palm groves persist in Spain, especially in Elche and Orihuela, as well as presumably naturalized feral palms exhibiting distinctive morphological characteristics described as P. iberica. Phoenix palms are protected and continue to provide commercial fruits and palm leaves for religious ceremonies and to enhance the local landscape. Elche, the largest palm grove, is a World Heritage Site and a major tourist attraction.

The Esparto Grass Question: A Systematic Approach for a Long-lasting Problem in Stipa L. (gramineae)

ABSTRACT The systematic diversity within the esparto grass has produced controversy since the first century AD regarding the varying quality of this natural product as textile material. Investigated herein is Stipa subg. Macrochloa (Kunth) Barreña, D. Rivera, Alcaraz & Obón. Two species, Stipa antiatlantica and S. tenacissima, as well as two subspecies within S. tenacissima are recognized. Stipa kralifii is newly synonymized with S. tenacissima subsp. gabesensis. A dichotomous key is presented for identification of the taxa.