Francisco Andrade

Ecological economics and sustainable governance of the oceans

Abstract This paper is an introduction and synthesis of the papers that appear in this special issue devoted to the sustainable governance of the oceans. The special issue contains papers on various aspects of the problem, including: the ecological and economic importance of the oceans, the problems facing the oceans from an ecological economics perspective, the links between science and policy, the rationale for sustainable ocean governance, and examples of sustainable institutions and governance structures. We developed the ‘Lisbon principles’ of sustainable governance (responsibility, scale-matching, precaution, adaptive management, full cost allocation, and participation) as a core set of guidelines for sustainable ocean governance. We then describe the major problems facing the oceans in terms of how the principles are violated, and evaluate some suggested institutions in terms of how the principles are incorporated.

A Simple Method of Measuring Beach Profiles

Abstract Beach profiles provide useful information for coastal monitoring studies and management processes. In 1961, Emery proposed a simple method of beach profiling based on the use of two graduated rods, whose alignment and reading of the intersection with the horizon allow for the determination of differences in level along the profile. In spite of some shortcomings, and because of its simplicity and low cost, researchers and volunteers alike use the “Emery method” in monitoring studies of sand dunes and beaches, mainly in the USA. Modern techniques in current usage are expensive and require specialized technicians. An alternative method is presented, based on the physical principle of communicating vessels, that consists of the sequential measurement of differential elevation as read on two graduated rods connected by a hose filled with water. In terms of accuracy, this method compares favorably with standard topographic instruments, having significantly lower costs, higher portability, and greater ease of use and constitutes a valid alternative to the Emery method. It is faster, because the distance between the rods is adjustable to the shape of the beach and to the amount of detail required; does not need a visible horizon, allowing its use in lakes and in situations of limited visibility caused by beach relief or weather conditions; and requires no correction for the Earths curvature. The methods simplicity makes it appropriate for use by volunteers in the collection of relevant data for the study and management of coastal zones, contributing to the environmental and scientific education of the participants.

Marine spatial planning and oil spill risk analysis: finding common grounds.

A flow of key information links marine spatial planning (MSP) and oil spill risk analysis (OSRA), two distinct processes needed to achieve true sustainable management of coastal and marine areas. OSRA informs MSP on areas of high risk to oil spills allowing a redefinition of planning objectives and the relocation of activities to increase the ecosystems overall utility and resilience. Concomitantly, MSP continuously generates a large amount of data that is vital to OSRA. The Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) mapping system emerges as an operational tool to implement the MSP-OSRA link. Given the high level of commonalities between ESI and MSP data (both in biophysical and human dimensions), ESI tools (both paper maps and dynamic GIS-based product) are easily developed to further inform MSP and oil spill risk management. Finally, several other benefits from implementing the MSP-OSRA link are highlighted.

Distortion of tidal currents and the lateral transfer of salt in a shallow coastal plain estuary (O Estuário do Mira, Portugal)

We describe the tidal circulation of a coastal plain estuary across a flood tide delta located at its entrance. The area connects the downstream portion of the main estuary extending 30–40 km inland to the more complex delta reach that consists of a shallow main channel and a series of smaller side channels. The delta acts as a frictionally dominated zone that modifies the tidal wave from a simple sinusoid to one with ebb currents that accelerate to maximum early in the tidal cycle and last more than one-half of the tidal cycle. Along smaller side channels, the tidal currents favor stronger flood or ebb currents, depending upon the local surrounding morphology. The phase difference between ebb currents in the small channels relative to those in the main channel cause some of the salt to be retained thus reducing the tendency of freshwater discharge to flush salt out of the system. This mechanism of retention differs from the selective withdrawal mechanism described for this estuary in Blanton et al. (2000).

Quantitative assessment of the differential coastal vulnerability associated to oil spills

The risk associated with a given hazard (natural or technological) generally results from the interaction between the hazard potential and the vulnerability. This paper is centred on the assessment of the vulnerability variable. A quantitative vulnerability assessment and mapping methodology is proposed, with two main specificities: (1) it is hazard- and spatially-centred (respectively, oil spills and coastal areas) and; (2) the spatial segregation level used is the municipality. Due to the geographic context of the Portuguese mainland coast, the proposed methodology was applied in an attempt to illustrate the spatial distribution and the degree of the vulnerability associated to oil spills for mainland Portugal coastal municipalities. A final map is presented together with other informative elements. Analysis and discussion of the results allows for the understanding that: (1) there is a very heterogeneous and differential distribution of the degree of vulnerability to oil spills along the Portuguese coastline; (2) the application of specific hazard-centred and spatially-centred vulnerability assessment methodologies, comprising multi-dimensional indicators (e.g., geographic, ecological, demographic, social and economic), produces more robust and realistic results, highlighted by a thorough and spatially detailed analysis; and (3) future research is required on vulnerability assessment in Portugal; along side, hazard potential assessment methodologies must also be developed in order to create a final risk profile, which can be an extremely useful tool in spatial planning and management.

Educating citizens about their coastal environments: beach profiling in the Coastwatch project

The Coastwatch (CW) project is aimed at monitoring the coastline with the involvement of volunteers. Between 2003 and 2007 a beach profiling method was informally proposed to CW participants in Portugal as an extra activity to include in the surveys. Beach profiling contributes to a better understanding of coastal processes by providing quantitative information on the spatial/temporal evolution of beaches, which is crucial for coastal management. The profiling method proposed to the CW project is based on the physical principle of communicating vessels, and only requires a simple and inexpensive homemade “profiler”. The simplicity of putting together and using the profiler, added to the arithmetic straightforwardness of data analysis, makes this method adequate for several kinds of users and for most levels of education. Eight workshops were held that included a classroom explanation of the method, the construction of a profiler, the actual profiling of a beach, and a final classroom session of data processing and graphing. About 140 participants received such training, and several among them independently undertook beach profiling. Surveyed participants found the workshop and the beach profiling method interesting and useful, and considered it a valuable tool for teaching and for management. External stakeholders (coastal managers) highlighted the importance of beach profiling data for management decisions and considered that this method produces robust data, even when carried out by volunteers. Further advantages of the application of the method, in the context of coastal management initiatives, for scientists, managers, and volunteers are discussed.

Effect of a broad shallow sill on tidal circulation and salt transport in the entrance to a coastal plain estuary (Mira—Vila Nova de Milfontes, Portugal)

We describe the tidal circulation and salinity regime of a coastal plain estuary that connects to the ocean through a flood tide delta. The delta acts as a sill, and we examine the mechanisms through which the sill affects exchange of estuarine water with the ocean. Given enough buoyancy, the dynamics of tidal intrusion fronts across the sill and selective withdrawal (aspiration) in the deeper channel landward appear to control the exchange of seawater with estuarine water. Comparison of currents on the sill and stratification in the channel reveals aspiration depths smaller than channel depth during neap tide. During neap tide and strong vertical stratification, seawater plunges beneath the less dense estuarine water somewhere on the sill. Turbulence in the intruding bottom layer on the sill promotes entrainment of fluid from the surface layer, and the seawater along the sill bottom is diluted with estuarine water. During ebb flow, salt is effectively trapped landward of the sill in a stagnant zone between the aspiration depth and the bottom where it can be advected farther upstream by flood currents. During spring tide, the plunge point moves landward and off the sill, stratification is weakened in the deep channel, and aspiration during ebb extends to the bottom. This prevents the formation of stagnant water near the bottom, and the estuary is flooded with high salinity water far inland. The neapspring cycle of tidal intrusion fronts on flood coupled with aspiration during ebb interacts with the sill to play an important role in the transport and retention of salt within the estuary.

Distribution and structure of the upper sublittoral macrobenthic communities of Tróia sand beaches (Setúbal, Portugal) and their relationship with environmental factors.

The present study dealt with the spatial and temporal variability of the distribution of the upper sublittoral benthic macrofauna of the Tróia peninsula sand beaches and its relationship with abiotic environmental factors. The existence of a relationship between the data set of macrobenthic species distribution and community structure in the Sado estuary (432 individual samples) and the environmental factors in analysis was investigated. Morpho-sedimentary data analysis revealed an environmental gradient, from the marine margin (exposed marine environment) to the estuarine margin (sheltered estuarine environment). Benthic macrofauna analysis showed a gradient of increasing number of individuals, species richness and diversity from the marine margin (Exposed) to the estuarine margin (Sheltered). Canonical Correspondence Analysis showed the dominant patterns in the community structure to be explained by the environmental factors considered, the most important, of which in influencing the spatial and temporal pattern, being beach slope, organic matter and calcium carbonate contents. The structure of the sandy beach communities studied showed a clear dominance of the spatial patterns over the seasonal ones. Four assemblages were defined-(1) an assemblage dominated by Angulus tenuis, on the marine margin of the peninsula; (2) an assemblage dominated by Euclymene sp. and Apseudes latreillei, on the sea-estuary transition area and related to the presence of a Zostera spp. meadow; (3) an assemblage dominated by Glycera sp. and Scoloplos armiger, on the sea-estuary transition area; (4) an assemblage dominated by Notomastus latericeus, Nassarius reticulatus and Cyathura carinata, on the estuarine margin.

Use of satellite remote sensing for coastal conservation in the Eastern African Coast: advantages and shortcomings

Abstract Landsat 5 TM imagery from 2005 was used to map (at a coarse descriptive resolution) coastal habitats along the Tanzania/Mozambique transboundary zone. The map (available at http://www.transmap.fc.ul.pt/) was a reference for the study of environmental and social aspects, and for conservation, was disseminated among local stakeholders, ENGOs and various decision-making authorities and managers, and was used in the development of a transfrontier conservation area. Large scale remote sensing constitutes a cost-effective approach for research and management, as, with limited human, technical, temporal, and financial resources, it provides synoptic views of territories and allows for the estimation of quantitative changes in land use.

Marine spatial planning

Abstract Planning of marine areas is being developed worldwide to foster sustainable ocean management and governance. Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a process that aims to organize the use of the ocean space, as well as the interactions among human uses (e.g., fisheries, aquaculture, shipping, tourism, renewable energy production) and between users and the marine environment. Over the past 30 years, significant progress has been made by governments in their thinking about MSP. The MSP is currently under development in over 66 countries (44% of the nations with marine waters), encompassing six continents and four ocean basins, and the interest in MSP continues to grow. While most countries are still in the early phase of their MSP initiatives, others have already approved, implemented, or even revised marine spatial plans for many years. Despite its acceptance and use, development and implementation of MSP still faces several conceptual and practical challenges, from political to institutional, social, economic, scientific, and environmental sources. The present chapter provides a review on all these topics by addressing three main questions: what is MSP and why is it needed; what is the global distribution of MSP around the world, together with its state of development by region; and what are some of the most prominent and widespread challenges, present and future, that are linked to the development of MSP?