Francisco Liñán

Development and Cross-Cultural Application of a Specific Instrument to Measure Entrepreneurial Intentions

This article uses Ajzens theory of planned behavior to build an entrepreneurial intention questionnaire (EIQ) and analyzes its psychometric properties. The entrepreneurial intention model is then tested on a 519–individual sample from two rather diverse countries: Spain and Taiwan. EIQ and structural equation techniques have been used to try to overcome previous research limitations. The role of culture in explaining motivational perceptions has been specifically considered. Results indicate EIQ properties are satisfactory and strong support for the model is found. Relevant insights are derived about how cultural values modify the way individuals in each society perceive entrepreneurship.

Regional variations in entrepreneurial cognitions: Start-up intentions of university students in Spain

Empirical research has recently paid considerable attention to the role of environmental factors in explaining regional variations in entrepreneurial activity. However, cognitive models have not usually included these factors in their analyses. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to identify some of the environmental cognitive elements that may explain regional differences in start-up intentions. Thus, an entrepreneurial intention model is developed, theoretically based on the planned behaviour approach, institutional economic theory and social capital theory. The empirical analysis is carried out using structural equation techniques over a sample of 549 final year university students from two Spanish regions (Catalonia and Andalusia). Results confirm that valuation of entrepreneurship in each region helps explain regional differences in entrepreneurial intentions. As expected, social valuation of the entrepreneur was higher in the more developed region (Catalonia), positively affecting perceived subjective norms and behavioural control. In Andalusia, the influence of perceived valuation of the entrepreneur in the closer environment was more important, affecting attitude towards the behaviour and subjective norms. These results explain some of the differences in the pool of potential entrepreneurs in each region. They also justify the need by public-policy decision-makers to promote more positive entrepreneurial values in relatively backward regions.

Graduate entrepreneurship in the developing world: intentions, education and development

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to introduce the special issue by positioning and examining some of the key issues, tensions and challenges in graduate entrepreneurship in the developing world.Design/methodology/approach – The paper recognises the complexity and diversity of approaches considered by the different authors, highlighting a range of issues and challenges in their contributions. The paper is divided into the following sections: entrepreneurial intentions, attitudes and motivations; the role of higher education; and contextual cases, opportunities and challenges in graduate entrepreneurship.Findings – The paper suggests that there is a lack of research in the field of graduate entrepreneurship in the developing world, and that further research in developing countries may help to understand and shed light on the issues evolving around graduate entrepreneurial intentions, business start‐up and education. Some preliminary themes emerge from research included in this special issue. First, en...

Cultural values and entrepreneurship

Preface Alistair Anderson Introduction: Cultural values and entrepreneurship Francisco Linan and Ghulam Nabi and Norris Krueger 1. Is there an entrepreneurial culture? A review of empirical research James C. Hayton and Gabriella Cacciotti 2. National culture and cultural orientations of owners affecting the innovation - growth relationship in five countries Andreas Rauch, Michael Frese, Zhong-Ming Wang, Jens Unger, Maria Lozada, Vita Kupcha and Tanja Spirina 3. How culture moulds the effects of self-efficacy and fear of failure on entrepreneurship Karl Wennberg, Saurav Pathak and Erkko Autio 4. The interaction between culture and sex in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions Rotem Shneor, Selin Metin Camgoz and Pinar Bayhan Karapinar 5. Bourdieuian approaches to the geography of entrepreneurial cultures Ben Spigel

About Gender Differences and the Social Environment in the Development of Entrepreneurial Intentions

This study analyzes the interplay between gender differences and the social environment in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions. Data were obtained from two different European regions. The results show that the formation of entrepreneurial intentions is similar for men and women. At the same time, men consistently exhibit more favorable intentions than women do. Nevertheless, the perception of the social legitimation of entrepreneurship only serves to reinforce male entrepreneurial intentions, and not those of women. This holds for both regions and probably is a consequence of women feeling entrepreneurship to not be an acceptable career option for them. The implications of these results are discussed.

Considering business start-up in recession time: The role of risk perception and economic context in shaping the entrepreneurial intent

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine under-researched psychological and environmental factors related to entrepreneurial motivation and intention. This helps us to explore the links between risk perception (risk as opportunity and risk as threat), economic context (in a recession), entrepreneurial motivation (personal attitudes and perceived behavioral control) and intention for new venture creation. Design/methodology/approach – A sample of 619 individuals from two European countries, Spain and Great Britain, is studied. A range of control variables have been considered, including demographics, human/social capital and country effects. Structural equation modeling is used to analyze the relationships among the model constructs. Findings – The structural model broadly holds and adequately fits the data. Entrepreneurial risk perception is strongly linked with entrepreneurial motivation. Entrepreneurial motivation, in turn, is strongly linked with entrepreneurial intention. It suggests, therefo...

Testing alternative measures of subjective norms in entrepreneurial intention models

Although the theory of planned behaviour can be applied to entrepreneurship, study outcomes concerning the role of the subjective norm construct vary substantially. Using data from ten dissimilar countries, two critical topics held responsible for conflicting outcomes in research on entrepreneurial intention are investigated: 1) measurement issues; 2) possible indirect influences between the motivational antecedents of intention. On the first topic, structural equations suggest that a simple multi-item subjective-norm measure is better than the frequently-applied product of normative beliefs and motivation to comply. On the second, structural equation modelling reveals that the internal consistency and explanatory capacity of the constructs is about the same with the original model than with a modified model taking into account the indirect influences of subjective norms on attitudes and on perceived behavioural control. These results should serve as a guide for future theoretical and empirical development, and put existing study outcomes into perspective.

Assessing the stability of graduates’ entrepreneurial intention and exploring its predictive capacity

Purpose This is one of the first long‐term studies on entrepreneurial intentions (EIs) and their role in predicting start‐up. In entrepreneurship, the usefulness of intention models depends crucially on their stability over time. The purpose of this paper is to explore this issue in a cohort of university graduates. Design/methodology/approach Using a structural equation model (SEM), it addresses three research questions: whether EI and perceptions are stable over time; whether the pattern of relationships of the variables in the model remains stable over a three‐year period; and whether intention accurately predicts entry into self‐employment. A two‐wave study was conducted with respondents being final year students at time 1 (T1), and part of the working/active adult population at time 2 (T2). Findings The results suggest that construct scores and the pattern of relationships between the variables are notably stable over the three‐year period. The only partial exception is that of perceived behavioral c...

Individualism and entrepreneurship: Does the pattern depend on the social context?:

This article argues that cultural and personal values are relevant in the formation of entrepreneurial intentions; as such, the interplay between both value-levels deserves attention. Individualist values such as achievement, pleasure, self-direction and an exciting and stimulating life are related to entrepreneurial intention and activity, at both the cultural and personal levels. From a sample of 2069 adults with a university degree, the results support a double-effect of culture on entrepreneurial intention: the personal values effect (a more individualist culture leads to more members exhibiting higher entrepreneurial intentions) and the outlier effect (those who are more individualist than average in their culture will exhibit a higher entrepreneurial intention). Within the two individualist dimensions considered (self-enhancement and openness to change), the relationship of self-enhancement to entrepreneurial intention is stronger than that of openness to change. The implications of these results are discussed and avenues for future research are proposed.

Validating a theory of planned behavior questionnaire to measure entrepreneurial intentions

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB, Ajzen, 1991) has been widely employed to predict entrepreneurial intentions. The TPB offers a coherent and generally applicable theoretical framework, which enables us to understand and predict entrepreneurial intentions by taking into account not only personal but also social factors (Krueger et al., 2000). This study presents the validation of an Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ) in a sample of more than three thousand Spanish university graduates. The EIQ comprises four subscales: attitudes towards entrepreneurship, subjective norms, self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial intention. Unlike other questionnaires used in the field (Autio, Keeley, Klofsten, Parker & Hay, 2001; Krueger, Reilly & Carsrud, 2000; Liñán & Chen, 2009), EIQ follows Ajzen’s (Ajzen, 2002) methodological recommendations on how to construct a TPB questionnaire using composite measures of attitudes and subjective norms. Structural equation modeling (SEM) confirmed that the EIQ has a high reliability and predictive validity for Spanish university graduates’ entrepreneurial intentions.