Frank G. A. de Bakker

A bibliometric analysis of 30 years of research and theory on corporate social responsibility and corporate social performance

Social responsibilities of businesses and their managers have been discussed since the 1950s. Yet no consensus about progress has been achieved in the corporate social responsibility/corporate social performance literature. In this article, we seek to analyze three views on this literature. One view is that development occurred from conceptual vagueness, through clarification of central constructs and their relationships, to the testing of theory—a process supported by increased sophistication in research methods. In contrast, other authors claim that hardly any progress is to be expected because of the inherently normative character of the literature. A final view is that progress in the literature on the social responsibilities of business is obscured or even hampered by the continuing introduction of newconstructs. This article explores which of these three views better describes the evolution of the literature during a period of 30 years and suggests implications for further research.

Playing on Two Chessboards: Reputation Effects between Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and Corporate Political Activity (CPA)

It has recently been argued that corporate social responsibility (CSR) is ‘political’. It has been neglected however, that firms also operate politically in a traditional sense, in seeking to secure favourable political conditions for their businesses. We argue that there are potential synergies between CSR and corporate political activity (CPA) that are often overlooked by firms and that recognition of these synergies will stimulate firms to align their CSR and CPA. We develop a conceptual model that specifies how various configurations of a firms CSR and CPA – alignment, misalignment, and non-alignment – affect the firms reputation beyond the separate reputation effects of CSR and CPA. This model has important implications for understanding how and why firms should pay attention to their CPA and CSR configurations, and thereby contributes to the broader issue of why firms should make sure that they are consistent in terms of responding to stakeholder concerns.

Social Movements, Civil Society and Corporations: Taking Stock and Looking Ahead

The relationships between social movements and civil society on the one hand, and the corporate world on the other hand, are often shaped by conflict over the domination of economic, cultural and social life. How this conflict plays out, in current as well as in historical times and places, is the central question that unites the papers in this special issue. In this essay, we review the differences and points of contact between the study of social movements, civil society and corporations, and offer an agenda for future research at this intersection that also frames the papers in the special issue. We suggest that three research areas are becoming increasingly important: the blurring of the three empirical domains and corresponding opportunities for theoretical integration, the institutional and cultural embeddedness of strategic interaction processes between agents, and the consequences of contestation and collaboration. The papers in this special issue are introduced in how they speak to these questions.

Organizing product-oriented environmental management from a firm’s perspective

Environmental characteristics of products are increasingly investigated. Much research focuses on environmental implications of design decisions and on methods to determine and influence products’ environmental impacts. Less attention is paid to the organizational consequences of such insights. This paper aims to contribute to this discussion by describing and analyzing organizational aspects of product-oriented environmental management (POEM) from an individual firm’s perspective. Important motives for firms to engage in POEM are addressing stakeholder interests and obtaining a competitive advantage. Specific capabilities are required to organize POEM. In the process of building such capabilities, managerial decision-makers play an important role. Two case studies from the chemical industry provide interesting viewpoints on the organization of POEM: creating sufficient flexibility, a broad involvement across functions, and a managerial ability to identify and build the required capabilities are proposed as important factors in the process of organizing POEM.

What Prompts Companies to Collaboration With NGOs? Recent Evidence From the Netherlands

This article examines the factors that influence the propensity of corporations to engage with NGOs. Drawing from resource dependency theory (RDT) and related theories of social networks and the resource-based view of the firm, the authors develop a series of hypotheses that draw from this conceptual foundation to predict a range of factors that influence firms to collaborate with NGOs. These factors include the level of commitment of the firm to CSR, the strategic fit between the firm’s and the NGO’s resources, the level of trust the firm has in NGOs, the frequency of contact with NGOs, prior level and perception of experience with NGOs, and the level of pressure exerted by NGOs. The authors report on results of a survey of the Top 500 firms in the Netherlands on their interactions with NGOs, finding general support for our hypotheses, and suggest that understanding the motives for firm–NGO interactions can teach us more about firms’ corporate social activities and the way such activities are shaped in the dynamic interplay between firms and their stakeholders. Our findings are relevant for future research on cross-sectoral interactions, for corporations considering future relationships with NGO cohorts, and for broader questions about the role of stakeholders and the role of business in society.

Activists' influence tactics and corporate policies

CORPORATIONS INCREASINGLY PAY attention to issues of social responsibility, but their policies and procedures to articulate such responsibilities are not just a result of the good will of top management. Often, such policies and procedures are devised because some stakeholders raised their voice on issues relating to the interests of employees, investors, governments, and others. One category of visible though heterogeneous stakeholders is composed of “activist groups.” In this article, we present a range of tactics that activist groups employ to influence corporate policy and conclude with some corporate policy responses to these tactics, illustrated with some examples.

A research note on the use of bibliometrics to review the corporate social responsibility and corporate social performance literature

Recently, the authors presented a bibliometric analysis of research and theory on corporate social responsibility and corporate social performance, which included a list of frequently cited articles in these fields. This list caused some questions, and therefore this research note aims to supplement and discuss the findings presented in the original study to (a) explain the composition of the dataset used, (b) highlight some problems pertaining to bibliometric research, and (c) underline why such studies nevertheless are useful, also in business and society research.

Exploring Networks of Activism on Corporate Social Responsibility: Suggestions for a Research Agenda

One increasingly important development for which firms need to find innovative solutions is the growing attention to corporate social responsibility (CSR). The shaping of CSR can be seen as a process in which firms and a variety of other actors are involved. This paper highlights the role of activists, and especially the role of networks of activism, in the process of (re�?)defining, and sometimes innovating, the role of firms in issues of CSR. This can be seen as a process of institutional change in which norms are changed. Therefore, this paper contains a short theoretical examination of three relevant literatures (social movements, institutional theory and social network analysis) to flesh out some of their commonalities in order to develop proposals for a further research agenda for understanding how networks of activist groups (and firms) operate in shaping corporate social responsibility – an issue highly relevant in understanding the changing role of business in society. In addition, such insights can also contribute to understanding the role of activists in influencing innovation trajectories.

Product‐Oriented Environmental Management: Lessons from Total Quality Management

Environmental management issues are becoming ever more prominent in business, and their focus is broadening from process orientation toward product orientation. Until now, little attention has been paid to an organizational focus on the environmental performance of products. This article therefore considers product-oriented environmental management (POEM), an approach to organizing and operating a firm in such a way that improving the environmental performance of its products and processes becomes an integrated part of operations and strategy. First, the POEM concept is introduced. Because this concept addresses some issues similar to those of quality management, the possibilities of using insights from total quality management (TQM) in developing POEM are investigated. Based on an overview of the literature and conceptual studies of TQM, a coherent set of several elements are described that can contribute to the organization of POEM. These elements are grouped in a framework, the POEM matrix, which can be used to guide research within this emerging area of organizing for the environmental characteristics of products. This matrix could also provide guidance to practitioners by delivering an integrated perspective on the organizational elements that are conducive to organizing POEM. An example from case study research in the chemical industry illustrates such an application of the matrix.

The sequential patterning of tactics

Purpose – Activist groups apply a range of tactics in order to improve labour conditions in the global sports and apparel industry. The accumulation of these tactics leads to the build‐up of pressure on firms within this industry (brands, retailers) to change their policies and activities on labour issues in their supply chains. The purpose of this paper is to explore how activist groups instigate change within an industry.Design/methodology/approach – By re‐examining a series of previously published accounts, eight conflict situations in the global sports and apparel industry, involving Nike, Reebok and Adidas, were analysed.Findings – The paper demonstrates how an industry‐level approach is helpful in understanding how the sequential patterning of tactical choices evokes change in an industry. Studying activist groups’ tactics from this approach provides a richer understanding.Originality/value – The paper contributes to the growing literature on activists’ influence strategies in conflicts with firms a...