Frank Gustafsson

Characterizing targets and backgrounds for 3D laser radars

Exciting development is taking place in 3 D sensing laser radars. Scanning systems are well established for mapping from airborne and ground sensors. 3 D sensing focal plane arrays (FPAs) enable a full range and intensity image can be captured in one laser shot. Gated viewing systems also produces 3 D target information. Many applications for 3 D laser radars are found in robotics, rapid terrain visualization, augmented vision, reconnaissance and target recognition, weapon guidance including aim point selection and others. The net centric warfare will demand high resolution geo-data for a common description of the environment. At FOI we have a measurement program to collect data relevant for 3 D laser radars using airborne and tripod mounted equipment for data collection. Data collection spans from single pixel waveform collection (1 D) over 2 D using range gated imaging to full 3 D imaging using scanning systems. This paper will describe 3 D laser data from different campaigns with emphasis on range distribution and reflections properties for targets and background during different seasonal conditions. Example of the use of the data for system modeling, performance prediction and algorithm development will be given. Different metrics to characterize the data set will also be discussed.

Performance of 3D laser radar through vegetation and camouflage

One of the more exciting capabilities foreseen for future 3-D imaging laser radars is to see through vegetation and camouflage nettings. We have used ground based and airborne scanning laser radars to collect data of various types of terrain and vegetation. On some occasions reference targets were used to collect data on reflectivity and to evaluate penetration. The data contains reflectivity and range distributions and were collected at 1.5 and 1.06 μm wavelength with range accuracies in the 1-10 cm range. The seasonal variations for different types of vegetation have been studied. A preliminary evaluation of part of the data set was recently presented at another SPIE conference. Since then the data have been analyzed in more detail with emphasis on testing algorithms and future system performance by simulation of different sensors and scenarios. Evaluation methods will be discussed and some examples of data sets will be presented.

Registration and change detection techniques using 3D laser radar data from natural environments

In this paper, we present techniques related to registration and change detection using 3D laser radar data. First, an experimental evaluation of a number of registration techniques based on the Iterative Closest Point algorithm is presented. As an extension, an approach for removing noisy points prior to the registration process by keypoint detection is also proposed. Since the success of accurate registration is typically dependent on a satisfactorily accurate starting estimate, coarse registration is an important functionality. We address this problem by proposing an approach for coarse 2D registration, which is based on detecting vertical structures (e.g. trees) in the point sets and then finding the transformation that gives the best alignment. Furthermore, a change detection approach based on voxelization of the registered data sets is presented. The 3D space is partitioned into a cell grid and a number of features for each cell are computed. Cells for which features have changed significantly (statistical outliers) then correspond to significant changes.

Using an eyesafe military laser range finder for atmospheric sensing

Laser Rangefinders are well established components in various electro-optical fire control systems. Recent range finders are often operating at eye safe wavelengths around 1.5 μm which extend their utility. One such extension is the use of the sensor for atmospheric sensing based on the measured backscatter signal. The present paper investigates the use of an eye-safe laser rangefinder at 1.5 μm to obtain information on atmospheric attenuation at various paths in the atmosphere. This knowledge can in turn be used in combination with atmospheric and target/background models to estimate the performance of other EO sensors like TV and thermal imagers beside the laser range finder itself. Such information can be of great value both for estimating own sensor capabilities at a given moment as well as estimating the threat capability. One obvious example is ship defense where it is difficult to obtain visibility along a variable atmosphere especially in darkness. The paper will describe the experimental equipment and the results from measurements of atmospheric backscatter along various atmospheric paths. The backscatter curve is used to evaluate the extinction. This extinction values are compared with those deduced from a point visibility meter and from echo measurements against two similar nets positioned at 2 ranges from the sensor. The results indicated a good correspondence between these results. Finally the results are illustrated in a system perspective by estimating the performance for thermal IR and other EO sensors.

Using an eye-safe laser rangefinder to assist active and passive electro-optical sensor performance prediction in low visibility conditions

Abstract. Laser rangefinders are used in various electro-optical (EO) fire control systems. They often operate at eye-safe wavelengths around 1.55  μm, which extends their utility. The paper investigates the use of a modified eye-safe laser rangefinder at 1.55  μm to obtain information on atmospheric attenuation and couple that information to the performance of active and passive EO sensors with an emphasis of lower visibility conditions. Such information can be of great value both for estimating own sensor capabilities at a given moment as well as estimating the threat capability. One obvious example is ship defense where it is difficult to obtain visibility along variable and slant atmospheric paths, especially in darkness. The experimental equipment and the results from measurements of atmospheric backscatter along various atmospheric paths are presented. The backscatter curve is used to evaluate the extinction. These extinction values are compared with those deduced from a point visibility meter and from echo measurements against two similar nets positioned at two ranges from the sensor. TV and IR images of test targets along a 1.8 km path close to sea surface in the Baltic Sea were collected in parallel with the lidar. A weather station and a scintillometer collected weather and turbulence parameters. Results correlating the lidar attenuation with the imaging performance will be given.

Coordinated multi-wavelength laser system propagation experiments

Atmospheric propagation degradation effects including attenuation, aerosol scattering and turbulence have a great impact on the performance of optical systems. Relevant military optical systems include active and passive imaging for target recognition, free-space optical communication and DIRCM/EOCM. This paper will report on experimental work including measurement of retro signals at 1.5 and in the 3-5 μm wavelength regions for evaluation of retro communication links and DIRCM performance. Imaging experiments using a range-gated system both in the active and passive mode at 1.5 μm, will also be carried along the same paths. A dedicated target box and test targets have been fabricated for mounting on a mast at 8 km from our laboratory. The box contains reflectors and receivers in different slots each of which can be opened by a telephone call. A heated target on top simulates a point target in the IR region. The test targets are aimed for the range-gated imaging system. Preliminary experimental data will be presented and discussed.

Characterization measurements of ASC FLASH 3D ladar

As a part of the project agreement between the Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI) and the United States of Americans Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), a joint field trial was performed in Sweden during two weeks in January 2009. The main purpose for this trial was to characterize AFRLs latest version of the ASC (Advanced Scientific Concepts [1]) FLASH 3D LADAR sensor. The measurements were performed essentially in FOI´s optical hall whose 100 m indoor range offers measurements under controlled conditions minimizing effects such as atmospheric turbulence. Data were also acquired outdoor in both forest and urban scenarios, using vehicles and humans as targets, with the purpose of acquiring data from more dynamic platforms to assist in further algorithm development. This paper shows examples of the acquired data and presents initial results.

Passive and active EO sensing of small surface vessels

The detection and classification of small surface targets at long ranges is a growing need for naval security. This paper will present an overview of a measurement campaign which took place in the Baltic Sea in November 2014. The purpose was to test active and passive EO sensors (10 different types) for the detection, tracking and identification of small sea targets. The passive sensors were covering the visual, SWIR, MWIR and LWIR regions. Active sensors operating at 1.5 μm collected data in 1D, 2D and 3D modes. Supplementary sensors included a weather station, a scintillometer, as well as sensors for positioning and attitude determination of the boats. Three boats in the class 4-9 meters were used as targets. After registration of the boats at close range they were sent out to 5-7 km distance from the sensor site. At the different ranges the target boats were directed to have different aspect angles relative to the direction of observation. Staff from IOSB Fraunhofer in Germany and from Selex (through DSTL) in UK took part in the tests beside FOI who was arranging the trials. A summary of the trial and examples of data and imagery will be presented.

Lidar measurement as support to the ocular hazard distance calculation using atmospheric attenuation

The reduction of the laser hazard distance range using atmospheric attenuation has been tested with series of lidar measurements accomplished at the Vidsel Test Range, Vidsel, Sweden. The objective was to find situations with low level of aerosol backscatter during this campaign, with the implications of low extinction coefficient, since the lowest atmospheric attenuation gives the highest ocular hazards. The work included building a ground based backscatter lidar, performing a series of measurements and analyzing the results. The measurements were performed during the period June to November, 2014. The results of lidar measurements showed at several occasions’ very low atmospheric attenuation as a function of height to an altitude of at least 10 km. The lowest limit of aerosol backscatter coefficient possible to measure with this instrument is less than 0.3•10-7 m-1 sr-1. Assuming an aerosol lidar ratio between 30 – 100 sr this leads to an aerosol extinction coefficient of about 0.9 - 3•10-6 m-1. Using a designator laser as an example with wavelength 1064 nm, power 0.180 W, pulse length 15 ns, PRF 11.5 Hz, exposure time of 10 sec and beam divergence of 0.08 mrad, it will have a NOHD of 48 km. With the measured aerosol attenuation and by assuming a molecule extinction coefficient to be 5•10-6 m-1 (calculated using MODTRAN (Ontar Corp.) assuming no aerosol) the laser hazard distance will be reduced with 51 - 58 %, depending on the lidar ratio assumption. The conclusion from the work is; reducing of the laser hazard distance using atmospheric attenuation within the NOHD calculations is possible but should be combined with measurements of the attenuation.

Passive and active EO sensing close to the sea surface

The present paper investigates the use of an eye-safe laser rangefinder at 1.5 μm and TV/IR imaging to obtain information on atmospheric properties at various paths close to the sea surface. On one day active/passive imaging NIR and SWIR systems were also used. The paper will describe the experimental equipment and the results from measurements of atmospheric backscatter as well as TV and IR images of test targets along a 1.8 km path close to the Baltic Sea. The site also contained a weather station and a scintillometer for logging weather and turbulence parameters. Results correlating the lidar attenuation with the imaging performance will be given and compared with models.