Frank H. Hooper

Piagetian Theory and the Aging Process: Extensions and Speculations

There is little question that the work of Jean Piaget and his associates represents the premier theory of cognitive development currently available. Acknowledging the frequently mentioned conceptual intricacies and methodological deficits, Piagetian theory and the related normative research offer a most comprehensive account of cognitive functioning from birth to the adolescent years (Elkind and Flavell 1969; Grize and Inhelder 1966). The period of concrete operations, and to a somewhat lesser extent the sensory-motor and preoperational stages, have attracted an increasingly rich corpus of replication and validation research in a number of conceptual areas. In the great majority of this original and derived research, Piaget’s system is viewed primarily as a theory of developmental progression. The individual’s cognitive repertory is vividly outlined through a series of ever more complex accomplishments culminating in the apex of formal operations. One may well wonder exactly what type of quantitative and/or qualitative developmental changes occur beyond the years of young adulthood. The present paper will discuss some of the general issues related to an extension of Piagetian research to later portions of the life-span. Recent reviews of life-span developmental psychology (Goulet and Baltes 1970; Hooper 1970) point out the general lack of comprehensive examinations of cognitive or general psychological functioning at a number of markedly restricted age-intervals. Yet, as Langer has stated, “Insofar as processes of functional deterioration may be assumed to be lawful, it is necessary to formulate principles of regressive change that complement those that are proposed to govern progressive change. A theory of development that hopes to be comprehensive should probably inquire into both progress and regress, even if the laws governing each turn out to be different” (Langer 1969, p. 2).

A developmental comparison of identity and equivalence conservations

Abstract The developmental priority of identity conservation as contrasted with equivalence conservation theorized by Elkind (1967) was investigated using quantity and number conservation tasks. Subjects were 60 four-, five-, and six-year-old children of middle socioeconomic class background. All children received a battery of tasks which included qualitative identity, quantitative identity, and equivalence conservation of quantity and number problems. For the quantity battery, under the without justification condition, conditional probabilities and significant performance differences in the mean number of trials passed indicated that the order of acquisition of quantity tasks did conform to the hypothesized sequence: qualitative identity, quantitative identity, and equivalence conservation. No significant performance differences for number concepts were noted for both justification and without justification conditions. Scalogram analyses performed upon the combined quantity number task array indicated a scale or quasi-scale in the predicted order of difficulty. It was concluded that identity concepts develop prior to equivalence concepts when the content area is quantity conservation. In contrast, clear-cut conclusions cannot be made about number conservation.

Classification and Seriation Instruction and Logical Task Performance in the Preschool

The efficacy of small group instructional programs in classificatory, seriation, and combined class/series skills was evaluated for a sample of 60 urban, middle-class 4- to 5-year-old children in a transfer of training design. Significant specific transfer effects were found for the seriation instructional condition whereas little differences were found for the classification, verbal intelligence, and far transfer conservation task measures. Sex differences, school location effects, teacher biases, and pretesting effects were generally absent. The apparent feasibility of seriation skill instruction for preschool aged children and the general non-effectiveness of the classificatory and combined instructional conditions, particularly insofar as far transfer effects are concerned, suggests a nonunitary picture of cognitive functioning during the transitionary phases between preoperational and concrete operations period thought.

1: Conceptual Development and Instruction

Conceptual development and the learning of concepts have become of interest as topics for research in psychology in the past two decades. During the same period, curriculum developers have focused on concepts, both in identifying the specific subject matter to be included in the curriculum and in designing methods of instruction. Thus a vast literature is accumulating on the topic of this chapter, conceptual development and instruction, which provides a readily available source of representative theory and research. We have identified two systematic viewpoints to be given detailed presentation in this chapter. One is Piagetian theory and the other a model of conceptual learning and development we will refer to as the Wisconsin Model. Piagetian theory was chosen because of its power and comprehensiveness and because it now appears to be on the threshold of application to concerns and problems of education. The Wisconsin Model has only recently been reported and is still under refinement (Klausmeier, 1971; Klausmeier, Ghatala & Frayer, 1972). It is intended to influence directly the design of curriculum materials, instructional strategies, and the related assessment tools and procedures. The Piagetian system, which has been under formulation and refinement

The Search for the Woozle circa 1975: Commentary on Brainerd’s Observation

The reader is obviously familiar with Wohlwills (1963) infamous woozle hunt. It would appear that the woozle, that is, a general agreement concerning the underlying processes in human cognitive development, remains as elusive as ever. More to the point, we are presently looking for a particular kind of footprint, those dealing with the convergence-correspondence issue embodied in the structures d ensemble, or the structuresof-the-whole principle. The Piagetian structures-of-the-whole principle implies that the acquisition of a logical principle or particular operation at a given stage presumes the simultaneous mastery of all the tasks founded on this principle or operation. It asserts that there is a complete functional interdependence among the logical operations that can be applied to related tasks. Due to this reciprocal dependence, stage-related structures are to be expected to evidence synchronous development in the cognitive abilities associated with each. For instance, for the putatively related concrete operational concept domains of classes, relations, and conservation, one would predict that children would display synchronously emerging cognitive abilities in each of these areas. The purpose of this response to Brainerds (1975) observation is to review the most recent research in the area of within-stage correspondence and delineate the intricate theoretical and methodological complexities surrounding this issue, making it presumptuous to draw definitive conclusions at this point in time. Bingham-Newman and Hooper (1974) using a transfer of training design examined the efficacy of small group instructional programs in classificatory, seriation, and combined class/series

The Nature of the Life Concept across the Life-Span

In this study of people ranging from six to over sixty-five years of age, a high frequency of animistic responses was found in all ages examined. While a significant age effect was noted in the ability to categorize animate objects accurately, animisitc responding was generally unrelated to logical classification ability or to analytic cognitive style. For eleven- to thirteen-year-olds, however, a significant relationship between animism and both cognitive style and classification ability existed. An interpretation of the results which found high levels of animistic thinking beyond adolescence does not support Piagetian theory. Rather, adults may respond animistically because of emotional attachments which they have formed to certain meaningful physical objects.

Personality and Memory Correlates of Intellectual Functioning in Adulthood: Piagetian and Psychometric Assessments

Assessment of 180 college students at three ages, 17–23 years, 37–43 years, and 61–80 years, examined (1) the relative availability of Piagetian formal reasoning concepts, (2) the relationship of these formal reasoning performances to Horn and Cattell’s psychometric theory of general fluid and crystallized intelligence, and (3) developmental patterns among standardized intelligence tests, logical reasoning, immediate memory span, and selected personality or cognitive style measures. Total sample oblique factor rotation yielded 5 factors: (1) general fluid ability with significant loadings for matrices, field independence, and the 9 formal reasoning variables, (2) personality, (3) immediate memory, (4) verbal ability, and (5) internal locus of control. Factor pattern differences found in gender and age group analyses suggested caution in interpreting age main effects. Formal reasoning performances were generally adequate for all individuals including the elderly. Field independence was the best single predictor of formal reasoning which appeared to be more closely related to general fluid than to general crystallized intelligence measures.

Cross-sectional analysis of cognitive functioning across the life-span.

Performance on Piagetian logical concept tasks, standardized intellectual measures, and measures of memory ability, was assessed cross-sectionally. One-hundred-sixty individuals participated. Differential item difficulty patterns were noted on the Piagetian tasks. Curvilinear trends were evident for class inclusion, combinatorial reasoning, and conservation of surface area. Factorial analyses of variance revealed significant chronological age main effects for all tasks except transitivity of weight. Covariance analyses indicated that educational level is generally more closely related to logical concept performance than is chronological age. Dimensional analyses revealed separate factors for general intelligence, classification, relations, and conservation. The youngest and oldest age groups has similar factor patterns; these differed from those of the mature participants.

Piagetian structuralism and learning: Reflections on two decades of educational application

Abstract In light of salient measurement and evaluation issues a content analysis approach was chosen to assess the value and problem of applying Piagetian theory to early childhood education. Focal changes in implementation were analyzed with emphasis upon the so-called unique contributions of the theory to teaching goals, beliefs, understandings, and practices. Structuralism was compared favorably with learning theory in providing a conceptual basis for educational application. The inherently dialectical nature of Piagets views of knowledge presents an intuitively appealing albeit conceptually and methodologically abstract approach to educational innovation. It was concluded that applying Piagetian theory to education, in agreement with these special developmental dynamics, involves an interactively changing theory and data base as teachers and children develop over time.

COGNITION, MEMORY, AND PERSONALITY IN ELDERLY STUDENTS

This paper reports the results of a study of three groups (N = 180) of students, ages 17‐23, 37‐43, and 61‐80. The study was designed to assess the relative availability of Piagetian formal reasoning concepts at different ages in adulthood, and to examine performance patterns on standardized intelligence tests, logical reasoning, immediate memory span, and personality measures. Results indicated that although the elderly students’ performance was generally adequate, their scores on various tests were significantly lower than those of their younger college peers. Reasons for these results, and their implications in view of the fact that the subjects were all successful university students, are discussed.