Frank N. Willis

Initial speaking distance as a function of the speakers’ relationship

Distances between individuals were recorded at the moment conversation began. The distances were then related to the relationship between the individuals and to their sex, age and race. Groups differing in these characteristics were found to differ reliably in initial speaking distance. Student experimenters were approached more closely by their friends than by their parents whose approach was similar to that of strangers. Speaking distance was suggested as part of an operational definition of interpersonal relations.

Eye contact, pupil dilation, and personal preference

Subjects were asked to choose partners for experiments. The available partners differed in eye-contact or in pupil dilation. Subjects of both sexes were more likely to choose partners with eye-contact during an introduction. Males were more likely to choose female available partners with dilated pupils. Similarly females chose male partners with dilated pupils.

Interpersonal Touch Among Preschool Children at Play

Previous research has indicated that interpersonal touch is more likely for female than for male children, more likely for same-gender dyads, and more likely for black than for white children. However, the effects of race and social class upon touch have not been observed separately. In the present study, children were observed at play in black low-income, black middle-income, white low-income, and white middle-income preschools. Rates of touch were higher for low-income children in inside play areas and higher for same-gender pairs. In outside play areas, touch was higher for black same-gender pairs, but there was no race difference in touch for different-gender pairs. In general, rates of touch were higher than those previously reported for older American children and adults, but lower than those for both children and adults from some other cultures.

The Development of Gestures as a Function of Social Class, Education, and Sex

Accuracy scores for both the interpretation and transmission of twelve frequently employed gestures were obtained for eight groups of children differing in social class, education, and sex. Results indicated that middle class children were more accurate in transmitting and interpreting gestures than lower class children. Children with one year of school were more accurate in transmission and intepretation of gestures than children with no prior school. Boys were more accurate than girls in the interpretation of gestures.

Fighting in pigeons relative to available space

Fighting in pigeons was studied in relation to available space in cages of four sizes. Behavioral measures consisted of frequency of fighting response, response latency, and time of final fighting response. In general, fighting was found to increase with a decrease in available space although the visual properties of the space appeared to be important in determining the frequency of fighting and response latency. Other factors such as age and pre-fighting behavioral patterns also appeared to contribute to the frequency of fighting.

Persistence of conditioned fighting in a hen pigeon

Fighting a variety of opponents was observed in a hen pigeon 11 months after conditioning to peck another bird. The hen fought and dominated three opponents but failed to fight a cock which displayed a pre-mating behavioral pattern. Frequency of fighting was found to be related to territoriality. Fighting patterns were frequently not typical of what has been described in the literature as stereotyped fighting in pigeons.

Development of Social Behavior in the Guinea Pig in the Absence of Adult Males

Thirty-six guinea pigs were observed from birth to 60 days of age in a colony containing no adult males. The average first day of occurrence for each of 12 social behaviors was recorded for males and females both as initiators and as recipients. Social behaviors associated with exploration were the first to appear. Unlike previous observations reported by us on a colony with adult males present, the appearance of aggressive behaviors was delayed from weaning to about the onset of puberty. The appearance of sexual behaviors was also somewhat delayed; however, the successful mount appeared much earlier when adult males were absent.

Conditioned fighting and dominance in pigeons

Dominance was observed in a loft of eight racing homer pigeons, four cocks and four hens. The cock and the hen lowest in dominance as defined by frequency of displacements were conditioned to peck another pigeon in a pigeon chamber. The birds were returned to the loft and dominance was again recorded. No change in the dominance was observed as a function of the conditioning. This result is compared to previous reports of generalization of conditioned fighting.

Production of Threat in an Interview Situation

Landfield’s exemplification and expectancy hypotheses about threat from others were tested in an interview situation. 80 undergraduate Ss were instructed to report for academic advisement. Actors posing as advisors exemplified and/or expected behaviors which the Ss had been attempting to change in themselves. As hypothesized, Ss’ threat was indicated by a variety of responses when unwanted behavior was expected. The exemplification hypothesis, however, was not supported. It was concluded that accurate predictions about threat must include statements about the example, the expectancy, and the S’s anticipation of the relationship between himself and the threatening other. Finally, variation within experimental groups suggests the need for additions to the threat hypotheses.