Frank P. McKenna

Intrusive Cognitions: An Investigation of the Emotional Stroop Task

The role of intrusive cognitions was investigated using the emotional Stroop effect, in which irrelevant threat-related words interfered more with color naming than neutral words. In Experiment 1, the emotional Stroop effect decreased over blocks, indicating habituation. In Experiment 2, the interference persisted when different words were used in each block, suggesting that the habituation occurred at the level of the individual stimulus. However, there was some evidence for a decline in interference, suggesting some category-based habituation. In Experiment 3, the interference continued for emotional words relative to neutral words even when the neutral stimuli formed a category. In Experiment 4, neutral words were contrasted with positive and negative words; interference occurred only for the negative words. This result undermines alternative interpretations in terms of emotionality or self-relevance and highlights the critical role of threat.

Reversing the emotional Stroop effect reveals that it is not what it seems: the role of fast and slow components.

The relative contributions of slow and fast (online) components in a modified emotional Stroop task were evaluated. The slow component, neglected in previous research, was shown to lead to the prediction of a reversed emotional intrusion effect using pseudorandomly mixed negative and neutral stimuli. This prediction was supported in Experiments 1 and 2. In Experiments 3 and 4, a new paradigm was developed that allowed a more direct observation of the nature of disruptive effects from negative stimuli. The results provided a clear demonstration of the presence of the slow component. The fast component, which has generally been assumed to be the source of the interference, was shown, in fact, to have little or no role in the disruption.

Does anticipation training affect drivers' risk taking?

Skill and risk taking are argued to be independent and to require different remedial programs. However, it is possible to contend that skill-based training could be associated with an increase, a decrease, or no change in risk-taking behavior. In 3 experiments, the authors examined the influence of a skill-based training program (hazard perception) on the risk-taking behavior of car drivers (using video-based driving simulations). Experiment 1 demonstrated a decrease in risk taking for novice drivers. In Experiment 2, the authors examined the possibilities that the skills training might operate through either a nonspecific reduction in risk taking or a specific improvement in hazard perception. Evidence supported the latter. These findings were replicated in a more ecological context in Experiment 3, which compared advanced and nonadvanced police drivers.

Accident proneness: A conceptual analysis

The concept of accident proneness has had a long and controversial history. An attempt is made both to demonstrate the nature of this controversy and to investigate the reasons for its occurrence. Two factors are identified. One is the conceptual confusion surrounding the meaning of the concept. This is accounted for by the fact that accident proneness is defined by exclusion. The second factor is the repetitive use of statistical techniques which have been shown to be equivocal. An alternative approach to individual differences in accident involvement is advocated. This approach cuts through the conceptual confusion and is less susceptible to the criticisms which have been levelled against the traditional statistical techniques.

The role of time pressure on the emotional Stroop task

Although a wide range of methodologies have been employed in examining the emotional Stroop effect, little systematic investigation of these experimental manipulations has taken place. Two experiments were designed to investigate the role of time pressure in the emotional Stroop effect. It is shown that time pressure has an important role to play in determining not only the magnitude of the effect but also in whether it is possible to observe any effect at all.

The colour naming of socially threatening words

Abstract An emotional Stroop task was used to investigate colour naming of socially threatening words in individuals who possess a repressive coping style. The Marlowe-Crowne scale (MC) and the Bendig version of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS) were used to select repressor and control subjects, who subsequently completed the Stroop task. Repressors (high MC, low MAS) did not show an emotional Stroop effect, whereas low anxious (low MC, low MAS), high anxious (low MC, high MAS) and defensive high anxious (high MC, high MAS) all exhibited retarded colour naming of emotional words compared with neutral words. These results are discussed in terms of previous research in this area.

Skilled anticipation in real-world tasks: Measurement of attentional demands in the domain of tennis

Anticipatory skills are characteristic of expert performance in a range of dynamic domains. However, models of the processes underlying such skilled anticipation remain limited. This study describes the construction and validation of a video-based test of anticipation in tennis and examined whether video test performance is less attentionally demanding for expert tennis players than for novices. Expert players performed the anticipation test more effectively than novices and were less vulnerable to dual-task decrement. This article discusses these findings in relation to models of skilled anticipation. The video test could be used for both selection and identification of training needs.

Differential components of the manual and vocal Stroop tasks

In this study, four components of the Stroop effect were examined for manual word and vocal responses. The components were lexical, semantic relatedness, semantic relevance, and response set membership. The results showed that all four components were present in the vocal response task. However, in the manual word response task, the only component that produced significant interference on its own was response set membership. These results do not support predictions made by recent translation models (see W. R. Glaser & M. O. Glaser [1989] and Sugg & McDonald [1994]). A possible solution was suggested that located two sites for Stroop interference. The lexical, semantic relatedness, and semantic relevance effects were located in the lexical system, whereas the response set membership effect was located at a response selection stage.

Risky attitudes towards road use in pre-drivers

Motor vehicle accidents are one of the principal causes of adolescent disability or mortality and male drivers are more likely to be involved in road accidents than female drivers. In part such associations between driver age and sex have been linked to differences in risky behaviour (e.g. speed, violations) and individual characteristics (e.g. sensation seeking, deviant behaviour). The aim of this research is to determine whether associations between risky road user behaviour and individual characteristics are a function of driver behaviour or whether they are intrinsic and measurable in individuals too young to drive. Five hundred and sixty-seven pre-driver students aged 11-16 from three secondary schools completed questionnaires measuring enthusiasm for speed, sensation seeking, deviant behaviour and attitudes towards driver violations. Boys reported more risky attitudes than girls for all measures. Associations between sensation seeking, deviant behaviour and attitudes towards risky road use were present from early adolescence and were strongest around age 14, before individuals learn to drive. Risky attitudes towards road use are associated with individual characteristics and are observed in adolescents long before they learn to drive. Safe attitudes towards road use and driver behaviour should be promoted from childhood in order to be effective.

WHAT ROLE SHOULD THE CONCEPT OF RISK PLAY IN THEORIES OF ACCIDENT INVOLVEMENT

Abstract Recently a great deal of emphasis has been placed on the role of risk in theories of accident involvement. This may be exemplified by risk homeostasis theory, which argues that the level of risk people are willing to accept is the sole determining factor in overall accident involvement. The evidence for and against this position is reviewed and it is concluded that there is little evidence in favour of the theory. Several theoretical and methodological inconsistencies are noted. It is concluded that an increased knowledge of the limitations of human risk perception will prove useful in understanding how people react to human error and accident involvement.