Frank R. Dillon

Heterosexual Identity Development A Multidimensional Model of Individual and Social Identity

This article builds on earlier conceptual models of identity development to propose a model of heterosexual identity development. A review of the existing literature on majority and minority group identity development, heterosexuality, and other relevant foundational literature is provided as a rationale for the proposed model. Based on an analysis of the strengths and limitations of the existing literature, the authors propose a preliminary model of heterosexual identity development. The article concludes with implications for research, practice, training, and measurement in counseling psychology.

Development, Reliability, and Validity of the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Knowledge and Attitudes Scale for Heterosexuals (LGB-KASH)

Four studies on the development and validation of the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Knowledge and Attitudes Scale for Heterosexuals (LGB-KASH) were conducted. Exploratory factor analysis of an initial item pool yielded 5 factors assessing internalized affirmativeness, civil rights attitudes, knowledge, religious conflict, and hate—indicating that heterosexual knowledge and attitudes regarding LGB individuals could be conceptualized as multidimensional and wide-ranging. The stability of the multidimensional factor structure of the LGB-KASH was evaluated by confirmatory factor analysis. Testretest stability, internal consistency, and validity coefficients supported the use and continued development of the new instrument. Significant differences were found between heterosexual and LGB individuals on all 5 factors, especially internalized affirmativeness, knowledge, and religious conflict. Implications for theory and research on heterosexual knowledge and attitudes are discussed.

The Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Affirmative Counseling Self-Efficacy Inventory (LGB-CSI): Development, Validation, and Training Implications.

Five studies on the development of the Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Affirmative Counseling Self-Efficacy Inventory (LGB-CSI) were conducted. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of an initial pool of 64 items yielded 5 factors that assess counselor self-efficacy to perform lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) affirmative counseling behaviors (Application of Knowledge, Advocacy Skills, Self-Awareness, Relationship, and Assessment Skills). The LGB-CSI evidenced high internal consistency; however, low test-retest reliability was found over a 2-week period. Convergent validity was supported by correlations with measures of general counseling self-efficacy and attitudes toward LGB individuals. Discriminant validity was evidenced by an absence of relations between the LGB-CSI and measures of social desirability, self-deceptive positivity, and impression management. Construct validity was supported by findings indicating varying levels of self-efficacy commensurate with status in the field. Recommendations for training interventions are discussed.

Concordance Among Biological, Interview, and Self-Report Measures of Drug Use Among African American and Hispanic Adolescents Referred for Drug Abuse Treatment

This study examined the concordance among urine assays, interview measures, and self-report measures of marijuana and cocaine use among 190 drug-abusing/dependent African American and Hispanic adolescents and their families at 3 assessment points of an 18-month randomized clinical trial study. Results demonstrated concordance among urine assays, a calendar method self-report measure (Timeline Follow Back [TLFB]), and a noncalendar method self-report measure (Adolescent Drug Abuse Diagnosis Scale). Diagnostic criteria of marijuana and cocaine abuse/dependence from a clinical structured interview (Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children [DISC]) also converged, albeit weakly, with self-report measures. Adolescent and parent reports on DISC marijuana abuse/dependence diagnostic criteria were related; however, collateral findings for DISC cocaine abuse/dependence diagnostic criteria were equivocal. Differences in concordance among biological and self-report cocaine use measures were found for baseline TLFB assessments among African American participants. Implications for future use and refinement of adolescent drug use assessments are discussed.

AIDS Health Locus of Control, Self-Efficacy for Safer Sexual Practices, and Future Time Orientation as Predictors of Condom Use in African American College Students

This study examined the relationship between self-reported frequency of condom use (by self or partner during the past 6 months and lifetime), locus of control, self-efficacy, and future time orientation among African American college students who were single and sexually active during the past year. Data were collected from 106 undergraduate students at a southeastern university. The sample included both men (32.1%) and women (67.9%). The mean age of the sample was 21.1 years. Locus of control did not predict condom use. Greater probability of condom use was related to higher self-efficacy and future time orientation scores. Furthermore, women with stronger future orientations exhibited more frequent current and past use of condoms in their sexual activities than males. The implications of these findings for AIDS prevention education programs are discussed.

Identity Status Measurement Across Contexts: Variations in Measurement Structure and Mean Levels Among White American, Hispanic American, and Swedish Emerging Adults

We conducted this study to examine measurement equivalence and mean differences in identity status across 3 ethnic/cultural contexts: White American, Hispanic American, and Swedish. We used the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status II (EOM–EIS–II; Bennion & Adams, 1986), a commonly used instrument in the identity status literature. We conducted analyses to ascertain the extent to which the EOM–EIS–II functioned equivalently in 3 ethnically/culturally different samples. The internal structure of the measure was consistent across contexts. When we statistically controlled effects of age and gender, mean differences tended to be largely cross-cultural at the observed level of analysis but to be both cross-ethnic and cross-cultural at the latent level of analysis. This divergence in findings was found despite the limited age range represented in each of the samples. We therefore concluded that measurement error may have played a role in these differences and that data gathered using the EOM–EIS–II should be analyzed using latent variable methods. We discuss results in terms of using the EOM–EIS–II with diverse populations.

The Efficacy of Structural Ecosystems Therapy With Drug-Abusing/ Dependent African American and Hispanic American Adolescents

Many family therapies for adolescent drug use include ecological interventions. The purpose of this randomized clinical trial was to establish whether ecological interventions contribute to the impact of family therapy above and beyond the contributions of family process-only interventions. A family-based ecological approach, structural ecosystems therapy (SET), was compared with family process-only condition (FAM) and community services control (CS). One hundred ninety substance-abusing or dependent African American and Hispanic adolescents were randomized to SET, FAM, or CS. Follow-up assessments were conducted at 3, 6, 12, and 18 months postrandomization. SET was significantly more efficacious than FAM and CS in reducing adolescent drug use. However, these improvements were limited to Hispanic adolescents. The study demonstrates the importance of investigating changes in adolescent drug use as a result of treatment condition across more than 1 racial/ethnic group.

The Multicultural Teaching Competency Scale: Development and Initial Validation

This article reports on the development and initial validation of the multidimensional Multicultural Teaching Competency Scale (MTCS). Data from 506 pre- and in-service teachers were collected in three interrelated studies. Exploratory factor analysis results suggested a 16-item, two-factor solution: (a) multicultural teaching skill and (b) multicultural teaching knowledge. Confirmatory factor analysis suggested that the two-factor model was a good fit of the data and superior to competing models. The MTCS demonstrated adequate internal consistency and was related in meaningful ways to measures of racism awareness and multicultural teaching attitudes. Participant responses were not associated with social desirability. Implications are discussed.

Acculturative Stress and Diminishing Family Cohesion Among Recent Latino Immigrants

This study investigates a theorized link between Latino immigrants’ experience of acculturative stress during their two initial years in the United States (US) and declines in family cohesion from pre- to post-immigration contexts. This retrospective cohort study included 405 adult participants. Baseline assessment occurred during participants’ first 12 months in the US. Follow-up assessment occurred during participants’ second year in the US. General linear mixed models were used to estimate change in family cohesion and sociocultural correlates of this change. Inverse associations were determined between acculturative stress during initial years in the US and declines in family cohesion from pre-immigration to post-immigration contexts. Participants with undocumented immigration status, those with lower education levels, and those without family in the US generally indicated lower family cohesion. Participants who experienced more acculturative stress and those without family in the US evidenced a greater decline in family cohesion. Results are promising in terms of implications for health services for recent Latino immigrants.

Exploring the Role of Parental Monitoring of Peers on the Relationship Between Family Functioning and Delinquency in the Lives of African American and Hispanic Adolescents

This cross-sectional study explores potential mediating effects of parental monitoring of peers on three adolescent problem behaviors (externalizing behavior, drug use, sexual risk behavior) among juvenile delinquents and their families. Participants are 190 African American and Hispanic adolescents and parent guardians enrolled in a family therapy treatment efficacy study targeting delinquency. Parental monitoring of peers mediates the association between family functioning and externalizing behavior in the full sample. Comparable results are not found in post hoc analyses of each racial and ethnic sample or among drug use and sexual risk behaviors. Research and health service implications are discussed.