Frank van Balen

Child Adjustment and Parenting in Planned Lesbian-Parent Families

One hundred planned lesbian-parent families (i.e., two-mother families in which the child was born to the lesbian relationship) were compared with 100 heterosexual-parent families on child adjustment, parental characteristics, and child rearing. Questionnaires, observations, and a diary of activities were used to collect the data. The results show that especially lesbian social mothers (i.e., nonbiological mothers) differ from heterosexual fathers on parental characteristics (e.g., more parental justification and more satisfaction with the partner as coparent) and child rearing (e.g., more parental concern and less power assertion). Child adjustment is not associated with family type (lesbian-parent families vs. heterosexual-parent families), but is predicted by power assertion, parental concern, and satisfaction with the partner as coparent.

Children in planned lesbian families: Stigmatisation, psychological adjustment and protective factors

The study assessed the extent to which children between eight and 12 years old in planned lesbian families in the Netherlands experience stigmatization, as well as the influence of protective factors (relationship with parents, social acceptance by peers, contact with children from other families headed by lesbian mothers or gay fathers) on their psychological adjustment (conduct problems, emotional symptoms, hyperactivity, self‐esteem). Data were collected by questionnaires filled out by the mothers and by the children themselves. The children in the sample generally reported low levels of stigmatization. However, boys more often reported that, in their view, they were excluded by peers because of their non‐traditional family situation. Girls more often reported that other children gossiped about the fact that they had two lesbian mothers. Higher levels of stigmatization were associated with more hyperactivity for boys and lower self‐esteem for girls. Having frequent contact with other children who have a lesbian mother or gay father protects against the negative influence of stigmatization on self‐esteem. Findings support the idea that children in planned lesbian families benefit from the experience of meeting other children from similar families.

Choices and motivations of infertile couples

When couples are confronted with infertility they may choose among several options: medical help, adoption, fostering, alternative medicine and focusing on other life goals. The frequency of choices and motivations for these options were investigated among 131 infertile couples. Husbands and wives answered a structured questionnaire. The medical option was chosen in more than 80% of the cases. Also, this choice is made very quickly. Other options were considered at a later time, and chosen much later than the medical option. The most frequently mentioned motive for seeking help is the desire to have a child. This motive is reported in all forms of help seeking Motives for medical consultation are often seeking information, understanding the cause of infertility and physical complaints. Altruistic motives are rather important when considering adoption, and very important when considering foster-care.

The USA National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study (NLLFS): Homophobia, Psychological Adjustment, and Protective Factors

SUMMARY The study assessed the influence of protective factors on the psychological adjustment of children who had experienced homophobia and whose mothers were participants in a longitudinal study of planned lesbian families. Data were collected as part of the National Longitudinal Lesbian Family Study by interviewing the children and having the mothers complete questionnaires. No significant differences were found in the psychological adjustment of children in the present study and their age-matched peers in a U.S.-population sample. Homophobia had a negative impact on the well-being of children who experienced it. Attending schools with LGBT curricula and their mothers’ participation in the lesbian community were found to protect children against the negative influences of homophobia.

Children in Planned Lesbian Families: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Between the United States and the Netherlands

A total of 78 planned lesbian families in the United States were compared with 74 planned lesbian families in the Netherlands. Children were interviewed about disclosure to peers about living in a lesbian family and about their experiences of homophobia; mothers filled out the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Results showed that Dutch children were more open about growing up in a lesbian family, experienced less homophobia, and demonstrated fewer emotional and behavioral problems than American children. Homophobia was found to account for part of the difference in psychosocial adjustment between the Dutch and the American children.

Children of the new reproductive technologies: social and genetic parenthood

OBJECTIVE To review empirical studies on families created by new reproductive technologies (NRT) in which only one parent has a genetic link to the child. METHODOLOGY Literature search was conducted among computerized databases. Inclusion criteria were that studies should focus on childrearing or parenting, as well as on the psychological adjustment of children in: heterosexual families formed through artificial insemination with donated semen (AID), single-mother AID families, oocyte-donation families, planned lesbian-mother families, planned gay-father families, and partial surrogacy families. RESULTS Compared to natural-conception parents, parents in these NRT families have better relationships with their children, and their children are functioning well. CONCLUSION Although several studies show that parents in NRT families are more emotionally involved in their parenting than are parents in naturally conceived families, no empirical evidence was found that the psychological adjustment of children in NRT families differs from that of their counterparts in natural-conception families. PRACTICAL IMPLICATION: The results inform counselors and infertile couples that concerns regarding the use of NRT in relation to negative consequences for the parent-child relationship or the psychological adjustment of the child are till now unfounded.

Emotional distress and infertility: Turkish migrant couples compared to Dutch couples and couples in Western Turkey

The present study investigates cultural differences in the effects of infertility on emotional distress. The study compares emotional distress among infertile people in three samples: Turkish migrants (n = 58), Turkish people living in Western Turkey (n = 46), and Dutch people (n = 199). Participants answered structured questionnaires on self-image, blame-guilt, sexual problems, depression, anxiety, and anger-hostility. Separate analyses were conducted for men and women. In general, the levels of emotional distress were higher for infertile Turkish migrant women and infertile Turkish women than they were for infertile Dutch women. Turkish migrant women reported more self-image problems and fewer feelings of blame-guilt than did Turkish women. Among men, Turkish migrant men showed the highest overall levels of emotional distress, and Dutch men showed the lowest. Our results indicate that the experience of infertility among Turkish migrants is more similar to those of Turkish people than it is to that of Dutch people, especially among women. The importance of having children in the different cultures may offer a possible explanation for these findings.

Attitudes towards sex selection in the Western world.

It appears that in most Western countries, son preference is somewhat stronger than daughter preference. However, when one considers the preference of women it looks as though the opposite pattern is emerging. There is a considerable social acceptance of ‘light’ methods of sex selection (such as diets), even though these methods are not proven to be effective. The inclination to use sperm separation methods appears to be greater in the United States than in some European countries. There are indications that a preference for boys or for girls is associated with attitudes towards technology, child‐rearing style and the stereotyping of boys or girls. Copyright

The Impact of Having a Baby on the Level and Content of Women’s Well-Being

The primary objective of this study was to more fully understand the impact of having a baby on women’s well-being by attending to both the level and the content of well-being. To cover the judgemental and affective aspects of well-being we included global measures of life satisfaction and well-being and affective experience measures derived from the day reconstruction method. In a sample of 19 first-time mothers no differences between pre and postnatal reports of general life satisfaction, depression, anxiety, and experienced positive and negative affect were found, suggesting that the arrival of the newborn baby does not universally impact on women’s level of well-being. Changes in the content of well-being were studied by examining changes in the way women experience specific activities and interactions with various social partners. There appeared to be an upward shift in experienced positive affect during active leisure and a slight decrease in negative affect during time spent with relatives. The results are discussed in light of previously documented changes across the transition to motherhood in negative mood states, time use, women’s evaluation of various aspects of daily life, and relational satisfaction.

Perception of diagnosis and openness of patients about infertility

The perception of the diagnosis of infertility and the openness of patients about infertility was investigated among 108 infertile couples. Husbands and wives answered a structured questionnaire. The perception of diagnosis was in 38% of the cases different from the medical diagnosis. Patients perceived the diagnosis of male infertility more frequently, and the diagnosis of female infertility less frequently, than these diagnoses were made. Also there are significant differences in the perception of diagnosis between husbands and wives. Among the respondents there is a tendency to ascribe the diagnosis of infertility to themselves. It is important that physicians make sure that the patients have understood the received information. Family and friends are in almost all cases informed about the infertility problem, colleagues and acquaintances in about 60% of the cases, neighbors in about 40% of the cases. The reaction to openness is positive. Husbands are less open about male infertility than about female infertility. A selective choice of confidants and a subtle way of conveying the information generally lead to a positive reaction to the disclosure of infertility.