Frank W.H. Liu

Design of a visible-light spectroscopy clinical tissue oximeter

We develop a clinical visible-light spectroscopy (VLS) tissue oximeter. Unlike currently approved near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) or pulse oximetry (SpO2%), VLS relies on locally absorbed, shallow-penetrating visible light (475 to 625 nm) for the monitoring of microvascular hemoglobin oxygen saturation (StO2%), allowing incorporation into therapeutic catheters and probes. A range of probes is developed, including noncontact wands, invasive catheters, and penetrating needles with injection ports. Data are collected from: 1. probes, standards, and reference solutions to optimize each component; 2. ex vivo hemoglobin solutions analyzed for StO2% and pO2 during deoxygenation; and 3. human subject skin and mucosal tissue surfaces. Results show that differential VLS allows extraction of features and minimization of scattering effects, in vitro VLS oximetry reproduces the expected sigmoid hemoglobin binding curve, and in vivo VLS spectroscopy of human tissue allows for real-time monitoring (e.g., gastrointestinal mucosal saturation 69+/-4%, n=804; gastrointestinal tumor saturation 45+/-23%, n=14; and p<0.0001), with reproducible values and small standard deviations (SDs) in normal tissues. FDA approved VLS systems began shipping earlier this year. We conclude that VLS is suitable for the real-time collection of spectroscopic and oximetric data from human tissues, and that a VLS oximeter has application to the monitoring of localized subsurface hemoglobin oxygen saturation in the microvascular tissue spaces of human subjects.

STATIONARY HEADBAND FOR CLINICAL TIME-OF-FLIGHT OPTICAL IMAGING AT THE BEDSIDE

Conventional brain‐imaging modalities may be limited by high cost, difficulty of bedside use, noncontinuous operation, invasiveness or an inability to obtain measurements of tissue function, such as oxygenation during stroke. Our goal was to develop a bedside clinical device able to generate continuous, noninvasive, tomographic images of the brain using low‐power nonionizing optical radiation. We modified an existing stage‐based time‐of‐flight optical tomography system to allow imaging of patients under clinical conditions. First, a stationary headband consisting of thin, flexible optical fibers was constructed. The headband was then calibrated and tested, including an assessment of fiber lengths, the existing system software was modified to collect headband data and to perform simultaneous collection of data and image reconstruction, and the existing hardware was modified to scan optically using this headband. The headband was tested on resin models and allowed for the generation of tomographic images in vitro; the headband was tested on critically ill infants and allowed for optical tomographic images of the neonatal brain to be obtained in vivo.

Quantitative clinical nonpulsatile and localized visible light oximeter: design of the T-Stat tissue oximeter

We report the development of a general, quantitative, and localized visible light clinical tissue oximeter, sensitive to both hypoxemia and ischemia. Monitor design and operation were optimized over four instrument generations. A range of clinical probes were developed, including non-contact wands, invasive catheters, and penetrating needles with injection ports. Real-time data were collected (a) from probes, standards, and reference solutions to optimize each component, (b) from ex vivo hemoglobin solutions co-analyzed for StO2% and pO2 during deoxygenation, and (c) from normoxic human subject skin and mucosal tissue surfaces. Results show that (a) differential spectroscopy allows extraction of features with minimization of the effects of scattering, (b) in vitro oximetry produces a hemoglobin saturation binding curve of expected sigmoid shape and values, and (c) that monitoring human tissues allows real-time tissue spectroscopic features to be monitored. Unlike with near-infrared (NIRS) or pulse oximetry (SpO2%) methods, we found non-pulsatile, diffusion-based tissue oximetry (StO2%) to work most reliably for non-contact reflectance monitoring and for invasive catheter- or needle-based monitoring, using blue to orange light (475-600 nm). Measured values were insensitive to motion artifact. Down time was non-existent. We conclude that the T-Stat oximeter design is suitable for the collection of spectroscopic data from human subjects, and that the oximeter may have application in the monitoring of regional hemoglobin oxygen saturation in the capillary tissue spaces of human subjects.

High-speed real-time multi-channel data-acquisition unit: Challenges and results

In this paper, we describe the design of a 3 Giga-samples per second real-time multi-channel data-acquisition unit. We first introduce the technical challenges including synchronization, data transmission and printed circuit board design. Then we analyze the cause of issues in multi-channel synchronization, and develop a novel method to synchronize the channels and correctly save the data into RAM. We later discuss issues surrounding the units signal integrity and routing. We provide techniques and design procedures to properly mitigate these issues and guarantee the correct performance of the system. The DAU has been fabricated, and its performance is evaluated in this paper by sampling ultra-wide-band signals.

Automated quantitation of tissue components using real-time spectroscopy

Each tissue has a unique spectral signature (e.g. liver looks distinct from bowel due to differences in both absorbance and in the way the tissue scatters light). Therefore, we suspect that automated discrimination among tissue types (e.g. blood, nerve, artery, vein, muscle) or tissue state (frozen, unfrozen, viable, dead) is feasible. In this study, we investigated our ability to detect hidden structures (such as blood vessels) or events (such as tissue ablation via freezing) using optical systems. For blood vessel localization, a key step in vascular access, we resolved the component concentration of hemoglobin measured within the tissue, and found that blood vessel depth and direction could be determined. For freezing detection, we found that changes in effective absorbance during freezing allowed the freezing process to be monitored spectroscopically. Such optical techniques may usher in use of light-assisted medical diagnosis, leading to automated and portable diagnostic devices which enable real-time diagnostics and monitoring during medical interventions, such as cryoablation or vascular access.

Automated classification of tissue by type using real-time spectroscopy

Each tissue type has a unique spectral signature (e.g. liver looks distinct from bowel due to differences in both absorbance and in the way the tissue scatters light). While differentiation between normal tissues and tumors is not trivial, automated discrimination among normal tissue types (e.g. nerve, artery, vein, muscle) is feasible and clinically important, as many medical errors in medicine involve the misidentification of normal tissues. In this study, we have found that spectroscopic differentiation of tissues can be successfully applied to tissue samples (kidney and uterus) and model systems (fruit). Such optical techniques may usher in use of optical tissue diagnosis, leading to automated and portable diagnostic devices which can identify tissues, and guide use of medical instruments, such as during ablation or biopsy.

Efficiently Constructing Mosaics from Video Collections

In this paper, we describe an efficient method for creating mosaics from collections of videos. Our method is based on a utility maximization formulation which we optimize greedily. We employ a function for quickly estimating mosaics without computing image features that allows us to efficiently take greedy steps while still achieving user definable goals for mosaic quality. Indeed, we demonstrate using a number of single- and multi-video experiments that our approach can construct high-quality mosaics in only a fraction of the time required to perform the operations undertaken by existing video mosaicing algorithms. While we focus in this work on the application of panorama construction, our method has a wide range of applications, such as super-resolution, summary, and indexing.

Brain functional imaging using time-of-flight optical spectroscopy

We measured the changes in oxygenation of the brain in animals and humans during changes in oxygen delivery (hypotension, shock) or during brain activation (such as finger movement). We found that such changes were measurable. In addition, we found that we were able to detect a change in the oxygenation signal in an animal undergoing heart surgery before the problem was clinically noted, thus suggesting that such methods may allow for earlier intervention in the intensive care setting.