Frank W. Kohler

Teaching Social Interaction Skills in the Integrated Preschool An Examination of Naturalistic Tactics

The purpose of this study was to increase the social interaction skills of four preschool children with autism. Four teachers in integrated preschool classrooms participated. Experimental sessions occurred during daily 10-minute activities in which all children in the class were free to select from six to eight different activities. Prior to beginning the study, all four teachers were introduced to a variety of naturalistic teaching tactics designed to stimulate childrens play and interaction with others. A multiple baseline design was employed to examine three different conditions. In baseline, teachers used these tactics with no assistance from research staff. In a second phase, teachers received daily feedback and technical assistance. Assistance was provided on only one occasion and then withdrawn during a maintenance phase. Results indicated that all four children increased their social interactions during the technical assistance phase. Each boy exhibited his skills in a range of different play activities, and two continued to display high levels of interaction during a maintenance phase.

Teaching Preschoolers with Autism to Self-Monitor Their Social Interactions: An Analysis of Results in Home and School Settings:

This study examined the effects of a self-monitoring intervention on the social interactions of 3 preschool boys with autism. A multiple baseline across both school and home settings was used to examine several experimental conditions. First, each child with autism participated in daily 5-minute play activities with one nondisabled peer or sibling during an initial baseline period. Following their conduct of social skills training, teachers and parents implemented an intervention that encompassed adult prompting, edible reinforcement contingent on childrens positive exchanges, and target childrens self-monitoring of their own social behaviors. Three primary results were obtained. First, the self-monitoring package increased each target childs interactions with his peers and/or siblings. Second, the school and home procedures produced comparable impacts on some dimensions of childrens social behaviors, but other outcomes were affected differentially. Finally, both adult prompts and reinforcement were successfully reduced or faded within the school and home intervention settings.

Redefining the Applied Research Agenda Cooperative Learning, Prereferral, Teacher Consultation, and Peer-Mediated Interventions

We review recent literature on four intervention approaches—cooperative learning, prereferral teams, consulting teachers, and peer-tutoring—that have been recommended as means of accommodating atypical learners in general education settings. Although there is extensive evidence about some of these approaches, there are few direct tests of their effects on atypical learners in general education settings. In addition, the evidence about some approaches is based primarily on descriptive rather than experimental data. The research in these areas, although encouraging, does not justify reducing special education services or provide definitive direction for practice. Indeed, the available evidence reemphasizes the need for careful and systematic research.

Peer-assisted interventions: Early promises, notable achievements, and future aspirations☆

Abstract Peer-assisted interventions have become increasingly popular over the past several years. These procedures utilize peers to implement a variety of different instructional or behavior change interventions within educational settings. Four types of peer-assisted interventions reported within the educational and applied behavior analysis literature include peer managers, peer tutors, peer models, and group-oriented contingencies. This article examines the initial promises, notable achievements, and future aspirations of peer-assisted interventions. The initial promises were superior effectiveness and practicality. An examination of the literature (notable achievements) indicates some evidence for effectiveness, but little documentation of procedural practicality. The immediate goals (future aspirations) include the more thorough assessment of practicality and popularity of peer-assisted interventions.

Promoting Positive and Supportive Interactions Between Preschoolers: An Analysis of Group-Oriented Contingencies

This study examined the effects of several procedures on the social and supportive interactions of two preschoolers with handicaps and their socially competent peers. An alternating individual and group-oriented reinforcement contingency produced equal increases in the target childrens interactions with peers. However, neither procedure generated consistent levels of supportive peer behaviors. Following a baseline phase where social and supportive interactions decreased to lower levels, two socially competent children were taught to deliver high levels of supportive prompts to their peers during a dramatic play activity (e.g., “Ask [target child] to come and join our picnic”). Results indicated that peers complied with these statements by increasing the frequency of social behaviors directed to the target children. A final interdependent group contingency condition maintained both social and supportive interactions at high levels. These results are discussed with regard to the efficacy of group-oriented contingencies.

Maximizing Peer-Mediated Resources in Integrated Preschool Classrooms.

The inclusion of young children with special needs has been a predominant topic in early childhood special education in the past 25 years. Despite considerable advocacy and public policy, the instructional resources provided in integrated preschool settings continue to present a dilemma for many professionals and families. Although an abundance of research indicates that peers can be functional and potent resources, some studies have suggested that placement in integrated preschool programs does not always enhance the skills of preschoolers with disabilities. This article describes four characteristics that might be associated with the optimal use of peer-mediated procedures in integrated preschools: comprehensive in the skills and activities that they address, intensive or large scale in application, practical and acceptable to teachers, and effective for producing intended outcomes. Peer-mediated interventions with these characteristics may ensure that preschoolers with disabilities accrue positive outcomes from integrated preschool settings.

Toward a technology of generalization: The identification of natural contingencies of reinforcement.

Applied behavior analysts have directed a growing effort towards the development of a technology for behavioral generalization and maintenance over the past decade. Among the list of potential generalization promoters thought to exist is the natural contingency of social reinforcement (i.e., a behavioral trap) for new behavior in its untrained form or setting, or over time. Although past researchers have noted a need to program for the generalization and maintenance of behavior change, the current understanding of behavioral traps precludes the use of these contingencies to support behavioral changes when interventions are not in operation. This article describes five forms of evidence useful for the identification and analysis of natural contingencies of reinforcement. Examples from the applied research literature are provided to illustrate the kinds of studies that would greatly enhance our knowledge of behavioral traps and improve our ability to understand and program the generalization of trained behaviors across diverse forms and settings, and over time.

Activity Engagement and Social Interaction Development in Young Children with Autism An Examination of “Free” Intervention Effects

Using a series of reversal designs, interventions to improve the active engagement and the peer social skills of five preschool boys with autism were investigated. In contrast to intervention for engagement, peer social skill intervention resulted in a number of “free effects” for all the participants. Specifically, childrens engagement with peers increased, as did their exposure to nondisabled children when the peer social skill intervention was in effect.

The Overtures of Preschool Social Skill Intervention Agents Differential Rates, Forms, and Functions

The purpose of this study was to examine the differential topographies and functions of social behaviors directed by normaly developing preschoolers to their playmates with autism. Social interaction data from intervention phases of a study by Kohler, Strain, Hoyson, DeCesare, Donina, and Rapp were analyzed in three different ways. First, thefrequency of four behaviors commonly included in social interaction training or assessment procedures (i.e., play organizer suggestions, share offers or requests, assistance offers or requests, and general statements) was examined. Second, the effects of each peer behavior on the immediate response of 3 children with autism were examined. Finally, the impact of each behavior that led to a positive response on the duration of subsequent target child-peer social interactions was examined. The four social behaviors had differential topographical and functional properties. Shares and play organizers occurred most frequently and generated the highest proportion of positive responses from all 3 children with autism. Conversely, assistance offers or requests occurred less often and received a lower percentage of positive responses. However, assistance behaviors consistently led to the longest social interactions. Implications of these results for future social skills training and research are discussed.

Analyzing Predictors of Daily Social Skill Performance.

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of play activities, teachers’ predictions of childrens sociability, and intervention fidelity variables on the level of interaction between three preschoolers with autism and their typical peers. Children participated in daily play activity groups of three, including one youngster with autism and two peers. Following a baseline condition, all children in the class learned to exchange a range of prosocial overtures, including shares, play organizers, and assistance. Teachers then implemented an individual reinforcement contingency to maintain childrens newly taught exchanges. Results indicated that social reciprocity and peer effort correlated most highly with target childrens level of social interaction. Conversely, teachers’ choice of activity materials and predictions about sociability did not correlate with childrens interactions during either experimental phase. These findings are discussed with regard to their implications for future social skills research and intervention.